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THE UMBRIAN TOWNS 




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Photograph : A linari 



S. FRANCIS 

(From a Fresco at Subiaco) 

Supposed to have been painted in 1222 



GRANT ALLEN'S HISTORICAL GUIDES 

THE 
UMBRIAN TOWNS 



BY 

J. W. & A. M. CRUICKSHANK 



SECOND EDITION REVISED, WITH THIRTY-TWO 
REPRODUCTIONS FROM PHOTOGRAPHS 




NEW YORK 
HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 
LONDON: GRANT RICHARDS LTD. 






^w^ 



i^Vrj/ Published . . igoi 
Second Edition . . igi 2 



//y/y£ 



PREFACE 

THE compilers of the following pages deeply regret that 
Mr Grant Allen, who planned this series of Guide- 
Books, should not have lived to develop his ideas under 
his own hand. They had the privilege of seeing him at 
work upon the Guide to Venice, and had some opportunity 
of recognising the brilliant powers of observation, and 
the masterly skill in clear and simple exposition which he 
brought to bear upon the subject. Although they have 
been able only very imperfectly to appreciate and follow 
his example, they think it may be for the convenience of 
readers to summarise the aims originally in view. 

The book is not intended to take the place of such guides 
as those of Baedeker or Murray. It does not give informa- 
tion about the details of travel, nor does it notice all monu- 
ments irrespective of their merit or interest. In dealing 
with collections, the object has not been to furnish a cata- 
logue, but to indicate the matters of essential interest, and, 
so far as is possible, to suggest the reason for this interest. 
An attempt has been made to give just enough historical 
tradition to enable the traveller to create for himself an 
atmosphere suitable to the objects which he is engaged in 
studying, and sufficiently detailed to suggest the place 
which they take in the general development of human 
interests. 

Two points of view present themselves in regard to all 
that we see — the manner of the doing of the thing, and the 
object with which it has been done. The one is the point of 
view of the artist ; the other that of^the student of human 
nature. An endeavour has been made to appreciate the 
monuments from both points of view. 

It has been thought to be most courteous to those who 



vi PREFACE 

use this book to express opinions quite frankly ; but no 
authority is claimed, and particularly where the sphere of 
the experts may have been trespassed on, nothing more is 
intended than a suggestion for the traveller, to be used as a 
starting-point for his own observations. 

An attempt has been made to note sources of informa- 
tion and opportunities for observation which exist in this 
country. In the National Gallery and at South Kensing- 
ton much may be done to prepare the way for enjoying 
foreign travel. Lists of books have been given which deal 
with the objects the traveller is most likely to have in view. 
References also have been inserted to the collections of 
Italian photographs that have done so much for students, 
and also to the copies of paintings now in the National 
Gallery, from which the reproductions of the Arundel 
Society were made. A collection of photographs of the 
most important objects can be easily obtained from London 
agents, or direct from the dealers in Italy, and if these are 
studied before the journey is made, they will be found to add 
to the significance and the interest of travelling. The com- 
pilers are conscious that errors and misconceptions will be 
found, and they will value the corrections which fellow- 
students and travellers may be able to send them, to the 
care of the publisher. 

They desire also to express their acknowledgment of the 
assistance they have received from Miss Katharine Wilson, 
who accompanied them upon the journey. In the work of 
observation as well as of revision, they are greatly indebted 
to her helpful insight. 

It has been said above that there is no intention to give 
information about the detail of travel, but as the question of 
accommodation is more difficult in the smaller towns with 
which this volume deals than in larger places such as 
Florence and Rome, it has been thought best to add a note 
on hotels. In Perugia the Hotel Brufani gives accommoda- 
tion of the best kind, and such as is suitable to all English- 
speaking travellers. In Assisi the hotels have been adapted 
to most of the requirements of modern times* In Spoleto 



PREFACE vii 

and Orvieto the hotels are Italian in character, but the 
proprietors are quite alive to the wants of foreign visitors. 
They are most anxious to do all they can, and the most 
cafeful attention may be relied upon. At Gubbio the hotel 
is primitive in character, but the same goodwill and desire 
to be useful will be found to exist. 



HOW TO USE THESE GUIDE- 
BOOKS 

rHE portions of this book intended to be read at leisure at 
home before proceeding to explore each town or monument 
are enclosed in brackets \thus\ . The portion relating to each 
principal object should be quietly read and digested before a 
visit, and referred to again afterwards. The portion to be 
read on the spot is made as brief as possible, and is printed 
in large legible type so as to be easily read in the dim light 
of churches, chapels, and galleries. The key-note words are 
printed in bold type to catch the eye. Where objects are 
numbered the numbers used are always those of the latest 
official catalogues. 

See little at a time, and see it thoroughly. Never attempt 
to " do " any place or monument. Individual works of 
exceptional merit are distinguished by an asterisk, and when 
any work of art has been unusually stimulating, it is an 
advantage to buy a photograph for comparison with the 
artist's work elsewhere or with analogous monuments in other 
places. Nothing is noticed in this book which does not seem 
to have some character rendering it worthy of attention, for 
its own sake, or for comparison with other works of art. 

These guides do not profess to supply practical informa- 
tion. 



IX 



CONTENTS 



Preface .... . . . . v 

HOW TO USE THESE GUIDE-BOOKS . . . ix 

Introductory Historical Note on Umbria . . xv 

Summary of the Monuments .... xix 

I. Perugia — 

Note on the Annals of Perugia i 

The Gateways and Walls . . . .10 

Etruscan Perugia . . . . .14 

Monuments in the Centre of the Town . . 35 

Churches in the North- Western District of the 

Town ....... 108 

Churches in the North-Eastern District of the 

Town . . . . . . .111 

Churches in the South-Eastern District of the 

Town . . . . . . .114 

Churches in the Western District of the Town . 124 

II. Excursions from Perugia — 

Todi . . . . 1 . . . . .131 

Panicale and Citta della Pieve . . .137 

xi 



Xll 



CONTENTS 



III. Assisi — 






PAGE 


Introductory Note 


. 141 


The Duomo .... 


• 143 


The Church of S. Francesco 


. ' . l60 


Other Churches in Assisi 


. 223 


IV. Smaller Towns — 




Montefalco .... 


. 247 


Spello ..... 


• 255 


Foligno ..... 


• 257 


Gubbio ..... 


. 263 


Citta di Caste llo .... 


. 271 


Trevi 


• 275 


Spoleto . . 


276 


V. Orvieto — 




Note on the History and Monumen 


ts . . # 295 


Etruscan Orvieto 


. 298 


The Duomo .... 


. 321 


Other Churches in Orvieto . 


• 374 


Index ....... 


. 385 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



S. Francis from a Fresco at Subiaco . Frontispiece / 

Photograph : Alinari. to face page 

Detail from the Adoration of the Magi, by Gentile 
da Fabriano ...... 

Photograph : Alinari. 

Sarcophagus of Larthia Seianti 

Photograph : Alinari. 

Etruscan Tomb from the Necropolis of Cervetri 

Photograph : Brogi. 

Windows from the Palazzo Pubblico of Siena 

Photograph : Alinari. 

Portrait of Vallombrosan Monk, by Perugino 

Photograph : Brogi. 

The Queen of Sheba adores the Miraculous Beam, 
by plero della francesca ..... 52 

Photograph : Alinari. 

The Angel and Tobit in the National Gallery, by 
Perugino ....... 

Photograph : Mansell. 
FlLIPPO SCOLARI, BY ANDREA DEL CASTAGNO 
Photograph : Brogi. 

Detail from the Pulpit in the Duomo Siena, by 

NlCCOLO PlSANO . . . . . . 82 •'' 

Photograph : Alinari. 

Pan, by Signorelli, Berlin ..... 104 . 

Photograph : Hanfstaengl. 

Detail from the " Disputa," by Raphael, Rome . 112 

Photograph : Anderson. 

The Symbols of SS. Mark and John, by Buona- 
micus, Pisa ........ 122 

Photograph : J. W. Cruickshank. 

Madonna and Child, by Agostino di Duccio, 
Florence ........ 126 

Photograph: Alinari. 

Detail from the Crucifixion in S. Maria Maddalena 
dei Pazzi, by Perugino . . . . .136 

Photograph : Brogi. 



xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

TO FACE PAGE 

Madonna and Child, S. Michele, Pavia . . 146 v 

Photograph : J. W. Cruickshank. 

Detail from the Last Supper, by Giotto, Arena 

Chapel, Padua ....... 170^ 

Photograph : Alinari. 

Madonna and Child, by Guido da Siena . . 176 / 

Photograph : Brogi. 

S. Agnes and the Archangel Gabriel, Simone 

Martini, Siena . . . . . . 178 v 

Photograph : Brogi. 

Detail from the Maesta, Simone Martini, Siena 192^ 

Photograph : Lombardi. 

Madonna and Child, by Luca della Robbia, 

Florence ........ 244.V 

Photograph : Brogi. 

Angels from the Fresco in the Riccardi Palace, 
Florence . . . . . . . . 248V 

Photograph : Alinari. 

Geometry from the Hall of the Liberal Arts, 
Vatican, by Pinturicchio ..... 256^ 

Photograph : Anderson. 

Cloister of S. Paul without the Walls, Rome . 262 J 

Photograph : Brogi. 

Capital, Atrium S. Ambrogio, Milan . . 282 v 

Photograph : J. W. Cruickshank. 

Peacock in the Museum, Brescia . . . . 286 J 

Photograph : J. W. Cruickshank. 

Painting from the Tomba dell' Orco, Corneto . 304 / 

Photograph : Brogi. 
FAgADE OF THE CATHEDRAL, SlENA .... 324 / 
Photograph : Alinari. 

The Creation, from the Campanile, Florence . 328 

Photograph : Alinari. 

Nativity of the Virgin, by Orcagna, Florence . 340- 

Photograph: Alinari. 

Detail from the Fresco of the Deluge, Sistine 

Chapel, Michelangelo ..... 356 # 

Photograph : Anderson. 

Detail from the Fresco of the Deluge, Sistine 

Chapel, Michelangelo ..... 358 / 

Photograph : Anderson. 



THE UMBRIAN TOWNS 

INTRODUCTORY HISTORICAL NOTE ON UMBRIA 

THE Umbrians have been generally regarded as 
among the most ancient of the races in Italy, and 
at one time their territory was widely extended. 

Successive waves of conquest, however, gradually forced 
them from the valley of the Po and from the coasts of the 
Adriatic. 

The first conquerors that we know of as limiting the 
Umbrian boundaries were of Etruscan race. This people 
settled throughout a large part of Central Italy, from Lom- 
bardy in the north to Campania in the south. Such ancient 
centres of life as Orvieto and Perugia are full of evidence of 
Etruscan life, and their remains are widely spread through- 
out Umbria. 

The close connection between the two peoples is of im- 
portance in the history of Central Italy, for the Etruscans 
were the most advanced, and the most highly civilised, 
of all the contending races in the country. 

The next limitation of Umbria was the result of the 
Celtic invasion of Italy in the fourth century B.C. The 
Celts advanced along the Adriatic coast from the north, 
while tribes of Italian origin coming from the south estab- 
lished themselves on the same coast, and thus the Umbrians 
were confined to the inland and mountainous parts of the 
country. They ceased to be a powerful people, and offered 
but a feeble defence against invasion. 

In 396 B.C., the capture of the Etruscan city of Veii, some 
eleven miles from Rome, opened the way for the advance of 
the Republic into Central Italy, and within the next 

xv 



xvi THE UMBRIAN TOWNS 

hundred years the power of Rome was established through- 
out Umbria. In 309 B.C., the Etruscans and their allies 
were defeated at the Vadimonian Lake, near the modern 
town of Orte ; and in 296 B.C., a still more crushing defeat 
was inflicted on the Etruscans, Celts, Samnites, and Um- 
brians at Sentinum, near the modern Sassoferrato. 

One of the most importar^t results of the Roman conquest 
was the making of the Flaminian Way in the year 220 B.C. 
This road stretched from Rome to Rimini, passing Narni, 
Nocera, Cagli, the Furlo Pass, Fossombrone, and Fano ; 
there was also a branch leading to Ancona. By this means 
the upland valleys of the Apennines were connected on the 
one hand with the capital, and on the other with the sea- 
ports of the Adriatic. The busy traffic of this great high- 
way led to the development of many towns on its route, 
and to the prosperity of places such as Spoleto, Trevi, 
Foligno, and Spello. 

The Roman province of Umbria included Central Italy 
east of the Tiber, with a coast-line on the Adriatic extending 
roughly from Rimini to Ancona ; to the north it included 
the upper valley of the Arno known as the Casentino, and to 
the south the river Nar divided it from the Sabine country. 

During the time of the Social War, B.C. 90, Umbria and 
Etruria did not join in the rising of the Italian allies against 
Rome ; the people of both nations received the Roman 
franchise. 

In the long warfare between the Imperial power of Rome 
and the Barbarians during the fifth and sixth centuries 
of our era, the province of Umbria shared the fate of the 
rest of Italy. The siege of Perugia, in which the town was 
attacked by the Gothic King Totila and defended by the 
Bishop S. Ercolano, and the great defeat of King Totila by 
Narses, the General of the Emperor Justinian, near Gualdo, 
are incidents which connect Umbria with the history of this 
great struggle. It was not until the Lombard conquest of 
Italy in a.d. 568 that the province had any individual im- 
portance. Under the new conquerors the country was 
divided into a number of dukedoms ; one of the principal 



INTRODUCTORY HISTORICAL NOTE xvii 

of these had its capital at Spoleto and included a large part 
of Umbria. 

The Lombards were nearly always at feud with the Pope. 
They were far more barbarous enemies than the Goths, and 
as their power grew the position of the Roman See became 
intolerable. In the middle of the eighth century the power 
of the Frankish rulers of German and Gaulish lands had 
become vested in the Arnulfings or Karlings, a family of 
great personal distinction and capacity. It was from 
Pippin, King of the Franks, that Pope Stephen begged for 
help against the Lombards. The King crossed the Alps 
and defeated the enemies of the Pope in 755, and it is said 
that the Frankish conqueror granted or confirmed to the 
Pope possession of large territory, mainly in Central Italy. 
When Pippin's son Charles completed the conquest of the 
Lombards in 774, the donation previously made is supposed 
to have been confirmed, and thus the Pope became posses- 
sor of a title which was never relinquished, although many 
generations passed away before it was effectually enforced. 

The Frankish conquest of Northern and Central Italy 
involved a strengthening of barbarian influence. Mar- 
graves and Counts formed the chiefs of a landed aristo- 
cracy founded on feudal ideals at variance with those of the 
municipal society of Greece and Rome. 

In the year 800 the Pope crowned Charles as Emperor ; 

and thus we find throughout mediaeval Italian history a 

-Teutonic Emperor and a feudal aristocracy set against 

a Pope and the dwellers in towns, representatives, for the 

most part, of the traditions of Roman civilisation. 

From time to time these Teutonic Emperors crossed the 
Alps and exercised a disturbing influence on Italian politics; 
nevertheless, the most permanent and persistent forces at 
work in moulding the life of Central Italy, consisted (1) in 
the influence of the Church, claiming in many parts of the 
country paramount power ; (2) in the power of the nobles, 
tending towards the tyranny of some great family ; (3) in 
the power of the citizens organised under trade guilds. 

The history of the Italian communes is really the story of 



xviii THE UMBRIAN TOWNS 

the struggle between the Latin and Teutonic ideal. To a 
large extent this took the form of war between the nobles 
and the citizens, and it constituted the serious element lying 
behind the faction fights of Guelphs and Ghibellines. 

The power of the Pope grew very slowly, and it was only 
after the return from Avignon and the election of Martin V. 
in 1 41 7 that the political influence of the Church became a 
constant and increasing element in Italian politics. The 
wars waged by Julius II. early in the sixteenth century, 
and the building of the great fortress in Perugia by Paul 
III. in 1540, mark the realisation of the dreams of Pope 
Stephen when, eight hundred years before, he called the 
King of the Franks across the Alps. 

By the side of the Italian communes and far from the 
Court of Rome there was growing up a third power of 
which little is heard in the din of mediaeval conflict. This 
was the Duchy of Savoy. In the middle of the eleventh 
century the power of this house was founded by the mar- 
riage of a Count of Maurienne who owned, the western side 
of the Mont Cenis Pass, with a daughter of the Count of 
Turin who held the Castle of Susa on the Italian side. One 
family thus came into possession of the highway over the 
mountains. From this beginning the house of Savoy grew 
in power and influence. In 1720 the chief of the house took 
the title of King of Sardinia. In March i860 there was 
added to this kingdom a large part of Central Italy. In 
1 86 1 the King of Sardinia was proclaimed King of Italy, 
and in 1870 Rome was made the capital of a united nation 
under the rule of the house which had been founded eight 
hundred years before. 



SUMMARY OF THE MONUMENTS 

THE most important monuments in the district 
with which this book deals may be epitomised as 
follows : — 

Etruscan life underlying the civilisation of the country 
may be studied in the tombs near Perugia and around 
Orvieto. The museums in the same towns have valuable 
collections illustrating Etruscan life and civilisation in a 
variety of ways. 

The remains of Roman life exist in many directions , the 
most important being those of the Arco di Agosto in 
Perugia, the Temple of Minerva in Assisi, the Roman 
Arches in Spoleto, and the remains in and around Spello. 

The Romanesque populations have left memories on the 
Rocca of Spoleto, in the Duomo and the Church of S. Pietro 
in the same town, in the Duomo at Assisi, and at S. Cos- 
tanzo near Perugia. 

Of the Gothic style there are two of the best examples 
in Italy, viz., the Church of S. Francesco at Assisi and the 
Duomo at Orvieto. 

Some of the finest Pisan and Florentine sculpture of the 
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries may be studied on the 
Fountain at Perugia, in the monument of Pope Benedict 
XL in S. Domenico at Perugia, and on the pillars between 
the doors of the Duomo at Orvieto. 

The application of mosaic to the purposes of an entire 
facade can be seen nowhere so fully carried out as at 
Orvieto. 

The history of the development of Italian painting is to 
be found on the walls of S. Francesco at Assisi, and in this 
respect no single monument can compare in importance 
with it. 

xix 



xx THE UMBRIAN TOWNS 

The art of the Umbrian school as it developed in the 
fifteenth century is exemplified in the Sala del Cambio at 
Perugia, and in the frescoes at Citta della Pieve, Panicale, 
Foligno, Trevi, and Spello. The rise and fall of the Um- 
brian school may be most conveniently studied in the 
gallery at Perugia. 

The art of the fifteenth century apart from the Umbrian 
school has one of its most magnificent developments in the 
Signorelli frescoes in the Chapel of Madonna di S. Brizio at 
Orvieto. 

The use of painting and sculpture to set forth schemes of 
theology and philosophy was common in Italian art.. Ex- 
amples occur in S. Francesco at Assisi, on the Fountain and 
in the Sala del Cambio in Perugia, at S. Pietro in Spoleto, 
and in the sculpture, the painting, and the mosaic on the 
Duomo at Orvieto. 




Photograph: Alinari 

DETAIL FROM THE ADORATION OF THE MAGI 

(By Gentile da Fabriano, painted in 1423. In the Accademia, Florence) 

Example of early fifteenth century Unibrian art 



I 

PERUGIA 

NOTE ON THE ANNALS OF PERUGIA IN THE 
MIDDLE AGES 

MANY chronicles relating to the history of the town 
have been preserved, and many historians have 
written of the events which happened within her walls ; 
but the best of them agree that there is great doubt in 
regard to the facts, and the causes which produced the 
events are often still more obscure. 

The following notes are not therefore to be regarded as 
an accurate historical statement. Nothing more is at- 
tempted than a brief outline of current tradition respecting 
circumstances affecting Perugia in the Middle Ages. 

Repeated conquests by Goths early in the fifth century, 
by Lombards (a.d. 568), and Franks (a.d. 774) produced in 
Italy a population composed of many races, none of which 
willingly joined with the others to form a truly organic 
society. An illustration of this is found in the maintenance 
of various systems of law, so that of people living in the 
same town some might claim to be ruled by Roman and 
some by Lombard law. 

The natural order of things in Italy ceased to exist after 
the settlement of the Teutonic tribes, for the lower form of 
civilisation was politically predominant. The men who 
owned the land and who ruled the country were of barbar- 
ian descent, while the more highly civilised descendants of 
the Latin races were the landless dwellers in the towns. 

The Church alone united in herself all the best elements 
of the national existence ; she inherited classical culture 



2 PERUGIA 

from the ancient civilisation, she modelled her organisation 
on that of Imperial Rome, she was heir to the enormous 
wealth representing the spiritual life, the terrors, and the 
devotion of generations. With the organisation and the 
influence of Imperial Rome, the Church inherited the 
desire for temporal dominion, and to some extent this 
interfered with her efficiency as the most powerful de- 
fender of Latin traditions in opposition to Teutonic civilisa- 
tion. The claims of the Church to the possession of terri- 
tories in Central Italy frequently alienated the sympathies 
of the town populations, who were otherwise her natural 
allies, and though it is unfair to say that the Church was 
the source of Italian divisions, it is true that her temporal 
ambition stood in the way of her power to make for peace 
and unity. 

Between the mediaeval Empire and its Margraves and 
Counts and the mediaeval Church, there was the inherent 
opposition due to two different ideals of life. Between 
the Church and the town dwellers of Italy there was only 
the occasional and temporary opposition due to the quarrels 
of two closely connected powers. The Church and the 
townsmen stand for Latin life ; the Germanic Empire, 
the Lombard Dukes, the Frankish Margraves, Counts, 
and landowners represent Teutonic life. 

For centuries the struggle between these two ideals con- 
tinued ; the faction fights of Guelph and Ghibelline repre- 
senting only a short and comparatively unimportant phase 
of a division which affected every relation of life and the 
development of all human energies. 

Although some towns, such as Pisa, Siena, and Arezzo 
were usually found supporting the Teutonic Empire, partly 
owing to local conditions and to jealousy of trade rivals who 
took the other side, nevertheless it remains true that the 
townsmen were of the Latin party, and that when no 
question of political domination interfered they were allies 
of the Church. 

In the introductory note on the general history of Um- 
bria it has been stated that when the Frankish kings Pippin 



NOTE ON THE ANNALS OF PERUGIA 3 

and Charles overthrew the power of the Lombards, they 
granted or confirmed to the Pope the possession of certain 
parts of Italy. There is doubt about what actually hap- 
pened, but there need be no doubt that the Pope asserted 
a claim to sovereignty over Perugia and the surrounding 
country. 

The practical effect of this overlord ship was serious or not 
according to circumstance. It did not become persistent 
until the fifteenth century, and it was not established be- 
yond question till Paul III. built his great fortress in 
1540. 

The gradual breaking up of the Karling Empire, which 
occupied the century and a half succeeding the death of 
Charles the Great (814-962), has left no traces in the history 
of Perugia that need concern us. But the re-establishment 
of the Teutonic Empire under Otto the Great (962-973) 
and the purification of the Papacy effected by Hildebrand 
(1013 ?-io85) mark a new era in the history of Italy and 
indeed of the whole western world. After this revival the 
Imperial power in Central Italy was represented by a 
Marquis. In 1027 Boniface the Pious was appointed to 
this office, and as he was the holder of many fiefs in Lom- 
bardy his position become one of power and dignity. He 
was succeeded in the Imperial Marquisate as well as in his 
other possessions by his descendants, of whom the great 
Countess Matilda was the last. Her territory extended 
from Mantua in the north to Chiusi and the neighbourhood 
of Perugia in the south. 

The death of the Countess Matilda in n 15 removed the 
direct pressure of external authority, and was the oppor- 
tunity for the beginning of a vigorous and semi-independent 
life in many Italian communes, for though the Empire and 
the Papacy had their respective claims to the allegiance of 
the people, the quarrels of these two great powers left the 
towns a good deal of scope. War between the Church and 
the Empire began in the eleventh century under Hilde- 
brand and Henry IV. During the early part of the twelfth 
century the quarrel proceeded fitfully, but after the acces- 



4 PERUGIA 

sion of Barbarossa it broke out afresh, and never ceased till 
the Empire was exhausted a century later. The struggle 
was carried on by the three Hohenstauffen emperors , 
Frederick Barbarossa (1152-1190), Henry VI. (1190-1197), 
and Frederick II. (1220-1250). On the other side, the 
Papacy was represented by such men as Alexander III. 
(1159-1181), Innocent III. (1198-1216), Gregory IX. 
(122 7-1 241), and Innocent IV. (1243-12 54). 

The contest was many-sided. It was a war between the 
spiritual and the temporal power on points of jurisdiction ; 
it was a war between an Italian power and a foreign in- 
vader ; and, more than all, it was a war between ideals, 
between Roman and barbarian, between a municipal civi- 
lisation and a feudal society. During this long duel the 
towns were, as a rule, against the Hohenstauffens and the 
feudal nobility. The result of the contest was the downfall 
of the Teutonic Empire so far as Italy was concerned, and 
the communes gained greatly in power and in vigorous and 
independent life. The period of conquest and victory came 
to an end with the battles of Beneventum (1266) and 
Tagliacozzo (1268), in which the Hohenstauffen power was 
destroyed, and the triumph of the Guelph party was 
assured. 

At the beginning of this period, Frederick Barbarossa 
visited Perugia (a.d. 1166) when at the height of his power. 
The city submitted itself to him, and it is said that some of 
the noble families, including the Baglioni, were descended 
from soldiers who settled in the city at this time. Again, in 
1 185, Henry, the son of Barbarossa, came to Perugia, and 
granted many privileges, including castles and lands, and 
particularly all that the Countess Matilda had owned within 
Perugian territory. The death of the Emperor Henry VI. 
in 1 197, and the accession of Innocent III. in 1198, re- 
established papal influence. 

There was, however, no great exercise of authority on the 
part of the Pope, and at the beginning of the thirteenth 
century it is evident that the government of the city was 
based on the Trade Guilds, associations which in all the 



NOTE ON THE ANNALS OF PERUGIA 5 

Italian communes formed the rallying point for the towns- 
men against the aggression of the nobles. 

The executive power of the city was in the hands of Con- 
suls of the Arts, the judicial power was exercised by a 
Podesta, who was chosen from some other town, and the 
armed forces was commanded by a Captain of the People. 
Behind these executive powers the legislative power was 
exercised by a number of Councils, the most important of 
which were a Council of the Rectors of the Arts or Guilds, 
and a Council of 500 " good men " of the Arts. 

About the middle of the thirteenth century we begin to 
find mention of a " studio," a scholastic guild, such as grew 
up in many towns without authorisation of Pope or em- 
peror, " a product," says Mr Rashdall (" Universities of 
Europe," vol. ii. part i.), " of that instinct of association 
which swept like a great wave over the towns of Europe in 
the eleventh and twelfth centuries." This " studio " de- 
veloped into a University, and received papal recognition 
early in the fourteenth century. Its work was helped by 
the foundation of two houses for the residence of foreign 
students. These were known as the Sapienza Vecchia 
(founded in 1368), and the Sapienza Nuova (founded in 
1427). 

Throughout the thirteenth century the city does not seem 
to have suffered much from civil strife. There were three 
parties, the nobles, the rich burghers, and the people ; but 
in the struggle with the Empire they probably found an 
outlet for their energies. The rich burghers were called 
" Raspanti," and the people, the " popolo minuto," were 
known as " Beccherini." 

After the defeat and death of the Hohenstauffen King 
Manfred in 1266, although the Guelph party was supreme, 
there was still unrest, and towards the end of the century 
there were signs of a change in the form of government. 
The chief executive power was in the hands of Consuls, the 
predecessors of the Priors who are first mentioned in the 
early years of the fourteenth century. Both seem to have 
depended upon the Trade Guilds, and it is pretty certain 



6 PERUGIA 

that the changes, whatever they may have been, were 
made in the interests of the Guelph party. 

To understand the city politics of this time we must turn 
for a moment to the relation of the Papacy with the Empire 
and with France. The Empire had not recovered from the 
shock of the overthrow of the Hohenstauffens, and except 
in the case of fruitless expeditions under Henry VII. (1308- 
1313) and Louis of Bavaria (1314-1347), Italy was free from 
direct interference. The power of the King of France had, 
however, grown as" that of the Empire declined, and the 
high-handed policy of Pope Boniface VIII. (1 294-1 303), 
together with the unscrupulousness of Philip the ' Fair, 
King of France (1285-1314), ended in the downfall of 
the political power of the Papacy. Benedict XL, the 
successor of Boniface VIII. , died in Perugia in 1304, and 
the election which followed led to the seventy years' 
residence of the papal court at Avignon. ' 

It thus happened that, for a large part of the fourteenth 
century, the Italian communes were left to develop in com- 
parative freedom. 

In Guelph cities this state of things favoured the rich 
burghers, since the nobles had suffered along with the 
Hohenstauffens, and the spoils of the defeated party had 
fallen into the hands of the most influential and powerful 
men among the Guelphs. We find therefore that in Peru- 
gia, during the first seventy years of the fourteenth century, 
the " popolo grasso," or Raspanti, held the rule of the city 
mainly in their hands. The government was still founded 
on the organisation of the Trade Guilds, but the election 
to the higher offices, partly controlled by nomination and 
partly the result of lot, were fenced about by rules exclud- 
ing all participation in the government of the city by the 
nobles. This spirit of exclusion was carried so far that a 
fine was imposed upon any noble who entered the palace 
of the Priors. Such a policy was not peculiar to Perugia, 
and we cannot wonder that it should have led to plots 
against the ruling class in the city. Between the years 
1360 and 1370 there was frequent strife, and in 1368, when 



NOTE ON THE ANNALS OF PERUGIA 7 

the victorious Raspanti had beheaded a number of their 
opponents, the Pope interfered, and declared that those 
who were slain were his friends. As the government by 
the rich burghers had caused dissatisfaction in other ways, 
the city turned against them, and a series of papal legates 
ruled until 1376, when all classes rose against the legate, the 
Abbot of Mommaggiore, and drove him out. This revolu- 
tion resulted in the establishment of a government by the 
" popolo minuto," in which neither nobles nor Raspanti 
were allowed to have a part. The change, however, pro- 
duced no better results, and in 1393 Biordo Michelotti, the 
leader of the Raspanti, established himself in the lordship 
of the city. He was murdered in 1398, and so distracted 
and divided were the citizens that they actually gave up 
the town to the Duke of Milan in exchange for protection. 
The failure of the " popolo grasso " and the " popolo 
minuto " naturally helped to improve the position of the 
nobles who had been driven from the city. At the head 
of this party was an able Condottiere, Braccio Fortebraccio 
(1416-1424), who succeeded in making good his rule in the 
town in 1416. The battle in which he was victorious over 
Carlo Malatesta, the Condottiere employed by the towns- 
men, is said to be represented in a picture by Paolo Ucello, 
now in the National Gallery. 

It was during the rule of Fortebraccio that by the efforts 
of a General Council of the Church the scandal of three 
Popes all claiming the allegiance of the faithful was brought 
to an end. Martin V., of the Roman family of the Colonna, 
was elected in 141 7, and the consolidation of the power of 
the Papacy brought the period of popular government in 
Perugia to a close. The new line of Popes adopted the 
side of the nobles and favoured the government of the 
town by the heads of that party. Piccinino, a famous Con- 
dottiere and a native of Perugia, was the chief man in the 
city from 1442 till his death in 1444. This, however, was 
only an interlude, the general trend of affairs put more and 
more power into the hands of the nobles, the chief among 
their leaders being members of the Baglioni family. Dur- 



8 PERUGIA 

ing the latter part of the fifteenth century Guido Baglioni 
was the most important man in the State. Papal patron- 
age since the time of Martin V. enabled the nobles to hold 
their own against the citizens, but it could not ensure peace 
within the ranks of the party itself. The families of the 
Baglioni and the Oddi were at the head of two opposing 
factions, and the strife was the more bitter, inasmuch as it 
was the result of personal rivalry and not of any question 
of principle. This feud is typical of many that had pre- 
ceded it, and its issue in the exile of the beaten faction is an 
example of constant recurrence in Italian history. 
• The whole story illustrates the social life of Perugia so 
admirably, and allows us to see how complete was the 
political disintegration of the time, that it may be worth 
telling at length. 

It was on Saturday, the 25th October 1488, soon after 
midnight, that cries of " Oddi " and " Baglioni " were 
heard in the piazza, and all night the people stood in arms. 
On Sunday each side waited and watched the other. 

On Monday the shops were closed, and the Baglioni 
faction fortified and garrisoned the Duomo, while the Oddi 
fortified their houses in the district of the Via Verzaro and 
the Piazza degli Aratri. 

On Tuesday there was much hard fighting, the object of 
the Oddi being to try to enter the piazza ; but the Corg- 
neschi barred the way from the Porta Susanna and the 
Baglioni commanded the other entrances. On that even- 
ing the Fathers of the Osservanza, Guido Baglioni himself, 
and some of the wives of the Oddi who were themselves 
Baglioni, tried to make peace. On Wednesday the whole 
city was under arms, and the artisans gathered in the 
Loggia of the Duomo demanding that the turmoil should 
cease. On Thursday Guido Baglioni began to burn the 
houses of the friends of the Oddi, until at last these latter, 
knowing that the Baglioni could get help from outside, and 
being counselled by Simone of the Oddi, agreed to leave the 
town, and on that night, the 30th October, thirty-seven 
men of the Oddi and six hundred of their friends went 



NOTE ON THE ANNALS OF PERUGIA 9 

out by the Porta Susanna and so to Castiglione del 
Lago. 

After the expulsion of the Oddi, " though there were 
famous and worthy men in the city, there were every day 
to be seen new excesses, and the city was without reason 
and justice." Many legates were sent by the Pope, but 
they had no authority. All the offices were to be bought, 
and extortion and oppression caused all men to lament. 
Upon the Baglioni fell the greatest punishment, however, 
for family feuds and rivalries led to a plot by which Grifone 
Baglioni hoped to slay all his kinsmen and attain the lord- 
ship of the city. Guido, the head of the house, with several 
of his sons and nephews, fell. One, however, Gianpaolo, 
" made wise and prudent by God at this point," thought of 
going into the house of a private citizen, and so leaving a 
man-at-arms to defend the staircase, he escaped by the 
roofs of neighbouring houses, and took refuge in the rooms 
of some foreign students. After having eaten, and clothed 
himself as a scholar, he went in company with two of them 
through the Porta Eburnea. Returning with soldiers he 
had no difficulty in establishing his power in the city, and 
those concerned in the conspiracy were punished. This 
happened in 1500, and for twenty years Gianpaolo ruled. 
He met his match at last in the Medici Pope Leo X., who, 
having become suspicious of him, invited him to Rome in 
1520. So on the 12th March, on a Monday, on the feast of 
S. Gregory, there left from Perugia Gianpaolo, and entered 
the Castle of S. Angelo in Rome to have audience of the 
Pope. He was made prisoner, and on the nth June his 
head was cut off, and he was buried that same evening in 
S. Maria Transpontina. It is affirmed that he went to 
death " very patiently, and with great devotion con- 
fessed many times, and obtained from the Pope all 
the indulgences, so much so that the Frati, who were at 
his death and confession, affirm that he died in great 
holiness." 

Twenty years after this, Paul III. finally subjugated the 
city by building a fortress, which was destroyed only in our 



io PERUGIA 

own time when Italy was united as a free people under the 
leadership of the house of Savoy. 



THE GATEWAYS AND THE WALLS 

There is no more easy or interesting way to make an 
acquaintance with the town of Perugia than to visit the 
ancient gateways and such parts of the old walls as are 
accessible and may yet be seen. These are the remains 
of the earliest life of the town. The large blocks of stone 
which form the lower courses of the gateways and appear 
in some parts of the walls are attributed to Etruscan 
builders. Above is seen the more modern work of the 
Romans, particularly at the Arco di Agosto, while in other 
cases a mediaeval battlement, as at the Porta Eburnea, 
reminds us of the struggles between the nobles and people 
in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. 

The Arco di Agosto* is reached by passing to the north 
of ^the Duomo and going down the Via Vecchia. The 
architectural forms of the arch are of the simplest. The 
Roman part of the building is supposed to have been 
finished about eighty years before the building of the Arch 
of Constantine in Rome, and although there is no sculptural 
decoration and no attempt at magnificence, the gateway of 
Perugia is a more impressive monument than that erected 
to the glory of the Emperor. The most interesting part of 
the walls may be seen by climbing the steep path, which 
is really a staircase, to the left of the gateway. It leads to 
a little terrace at the top, from which there is a magnificent 
view. To the extreme right is seen one of the outlying 
spurs of Monte Subasio. To the north are the Apennines 
about Gubbio, to the west is Monte Pacciano, the source of 
the mediaeval water supply. In the near foreground is the 
Church of S. Agostino, beyond it is the circular Church of 
S. Angelo, and the mass of brickwork of the time of Forte- 
braccio which marks the Porta S. Angelo. The whole of 
this north-western arm of the town is set on a ridge, from 



THE GATEWAYS AND THE WALLS n 

which steep valleys, covered with vines and olives, run 
sharply down into the low country. 

We may reach another point in the Etruscan walls where 
they are pierced by a gateway in the Via Appia. A sharp 
turn to the left down a narrow passage at the top of the Via 
Vecchia leads to this street. It begins as a staircase, and 
reaches the north-eastern part of the town near the Museum 
on a series of arches. 

The Via Bontempi leads from the little piazza in front 
of the main entrance of the Duomo, steeply down the hill, 
and so on to the Porta Pesa at the north-eastern corner of 
the city. The Etruscan walls are pierced by the ancient 
gateway of the Porta Sole about half-way down the Via 
Bontempi, 

The ancient gateway at the south-eastern corner of the 
city is reached from the Piazza Sopramuro by going along 
the Via del Ospedale and turning down the Via S. Ercolano. 
The Etruscan gate is about half-way down this steep stair- 
way. The best point of view is from the piazza in front of 
the Church of S. Ercolano. Near by, on the other side of 
this church, the remains of the ancient Porta Marzia have 
been built into the bastion, which has taken the place of 
the fortress of Paul III., destroyed since the establishment 
of the kingdom of United Italy. From this point the 
Piazza Vittorio Emanuele may be easily reached. 

The south-western gate of the town, the Porta Eburnea,* 
is reached from the Piazza Vittoria Emanuele by turning 
down the broad stairway to the north of the Bank of Italy. 
At the bottom we turn to the left for a few yards, and then 
to the R. down the Via Cesare Caporali. Passing to the 
l. of the little Church of Sant' Angelo d'Eburnea down 
the Via Bruschi, we come to the ancient gateway of the 
Porta Eburnea. It has a mediaeval battlement over the 
arch, and surrounded as it is by picturesque streets, it forms 
one of the most interesting parts of the town. On S. John's 
day it was the custom for the men of this gate to have a fine 
procession ; they were joined by the priors and the students 
from the Sapienza, and all went with torches to the church 



12 PERUGIA 

— probably the Duomo. After dinner the men recited the 
story of the Prophet Jonah, and went dancing through 
the city. 

If we pass under the arch and turn sharply to the r. 
and go down the staircase called the Via Paradiso we reach 
the modern Porta Eburnea. Outside this gate a pathway 
leads along the western side of the city. It is a lovely 
walk, having the walls of the ancient and the houses of the 
modern city rising steeply on one side, while on the other 
gardens and vineyards cover the slopes which fall steeply 
into the valley below. The city may be re-entered by the 
Porta Susanna. 

The western gate of the town, the Porta Susanna, is 
reached by the Via dei Priori, which leaves the Corso by an 
archway under the Palazzo Pubblico ; the street runs 
steeply and directly down to the Porta Susanna. In pass- 
ing down the Via dei Priori there will be observed to the 
l. an archway leading into the Via della Cupa ; a few yards 
down this last-named street the Via Deliziosa opens to the 
r. A gateway at No. 5 leads to the house of Perugino, 
with an inscription at the foot of the staircase. 

The eastern side of the town and the walls supporting 
the Piazza del Sopramuro [now Piazza Giuseppe Garibaldi] 
may be seen by entering a gateway at No. 6 Via del Ospe- 
dale which is generally open. A few steps into the garden 
enables the visitor to see the arches and walling, which 
follow roughly the lines of the ancient Etruscan walls. 

The mediaeval life of Perugia centred round the Piazza di 
San Lorenzo (or del Duomo) and the Piazza del Sopra- 
muro. 

If we stand on the steps of the Duomo leading up to the 
small door in its southern wall and look straight towards the 
Corso we shall have close to our right hand the bronze 
statue of Pope Julius III. (1550-1555), who was thus 
honoured in return for the concessions granted in mitiga- 
tion of the heavy taxes imposed by Paul III. upon the city. 
Further to our r. is a loggia built by Braccio Forte- 
braccio (1416^-1424). Beyond this are the buildings of the 



THE GATEWAYS AND THE WALLS 13 

Canonica. Turning at right angles and still looking to the 
R. we see the Archivescovile. The building may be recog- 
nised by its modern frescoes in monochrome representing 
the four cardinal virtues. Turning again at right angles 
there is straight in front of our standpoint the Palazzo 
Pubblico, containing the Library, the Picture Gallery, and 
the public offices of the town. 

Keeping to the same standpoint at the southern door of 
the Cathedral and turning to the l., there is close to us, 
built on the wall of the Duomo, the pulpit from which the 
great preachers of the fifteenth century spoke to the crowds 
in the piazza. 

Looking still to the l., the building at the south-eastern 
corner of the piazza, opposite to the Palazzo Pubblico, was 
the old hall of the Notaries ; according to tradition Peru- 
gino once used part of this building as his workshop. 

In the open space of the Piazza di S. Lorenzo is the 
public fountain. The Piazza was the scene of nearly all 
the great public acts and events which make up the history 
of the town. It was here, for instance, that she realised 
her territorial greatness. On the day of S. Ercolano the 
subject towns paid their tribute. Some sent " palii," 
pieces of cloth or silk, others a richly caparisoned horse. 
This ceremony is mentioned in 1314, and in 1381 it is 
recorded that nineteen lands and cities offered tribute. 

The learned life of the town was centred in the Piazza 
\ Supramuro. On the eastern side of the open space which 
is now used for the market, there are the buildings formerly 
occupied by the Captain of the People and by the Univer- 
sity ; they date from the years 1472 and 1483 respectively. 
The walls on which the piazza rests on its eastern sides are 
mentioned as early as in 1275. 

The principal points of interest in Perugia may be visited 
in the following way :— 

(1) Starting from the Arco di Agosto and going in a 
north-westerly direction — the Corso Garibaldi leads to S. 
Agostino S. Angelo, the Porta S. Angelo, and beyond the 
gate to S. Francesco al Monte. The Museum is in this 



i 4 PERUGIA 

quarter and may be reached by turning to the l. out of the 
Corso Garibaldi^ or more directly by the Via Appia. 

(2) Starting from the Duomo in a north-easterly direction 
along the Via Bontempi we pass near the chapel part of the 
old monastery of S. Severo, where the fresco of Raphael is 
preserved. At the bottom of the hill is the Church of Sta. 
Maria Nuova. 

(3) Leaving the Piazza Vittorio Emanuele or the Piazza 
del Sopramuro and going in a south-easterly direction along 
the Corso Cavour in the direction of the Porta S. Pietro we 
pass the Churches of S. Ercolano, S. Domenico, S. Pietro 
dei Cassinesi, and beyond the gate the interesting* Church 
of S. Costanzo. 

(4) Turning out of the Corso Vannucci (the main street) 
by an archway under the Palazzo Pubblico and going down 
the Via dei Priori to the west side of the town we reach the 
oratory of S. Bernardino and the Church of S. Francesco 
al Prato. 

ETRUSCAN PERUGIA 

General Note upon the Characteristics of the 
Etruscan People and their Art 

The cities of Tuscany and Umbria have many records 
in their streets and museums of an ancient civilisation 
dating far back to a remote period before the existence 
of the Romans, before the Greeks had risen from semi- 
barbarism, before the kings of Israel had established their 
kingdom. This civilisation was that of the Etruscans, or 
the Rasense, as they called themselves, a powerful, active, 
and able race of people who settled in Central Italy pro- 
bably in the ninth or tenth century B.C. Their origin is 
unknown, but the fact that many of their habits and cus- 
toms are similar to those of Oriental nations gives some 
colour to the tradition that they came from the East. 
They were doubtless a mixed race, and at an early period 
they showed in their arts a strongly sympathetic disposi- 
tion towards Hellenic culture. 



ETRUSCAN PERUGIA 15 

From whatever part of Europe or Asia they may have 
sprung, the point of importance for the traveller is the 
fact that this race left the stamp of its powerful individ- 
uality upon the country, so that throughout Italian history 
the Tuscans have been distinguished for their pre-eminent 
ability, both as thinkers and as artists. The tombs and 
the Etruscan collections in Umbria represent a long period 
of history. They are the products of a civilisation extend- 
ing over some eight or nine hundred years. 

Etruscan chronology is said to date back to the beginning 
of the tenth century B.C., and the earliest remains, probably 
of the ninth century, show that at that time they were a 
semi-barbarous race, capable of producing only primitive 
utensils for the simplest wants. The country was fertile, the 
people were able and industrious, and coming in contact at 
an early period with the products of Hellenic civilisation, 
they showed an extraordinary readiness in adapting them- 
selves to its influence. This capacity of the Etruscans for 
assimilating the higher culture of Greece is the most 
significant characteristic of the race. 

In the seventh and sixth centuries B.C. the inhabitants of 
Etruria were the most powerful of all the tribes in the 
peninsula. In 450 B.C. they were masters of almost the 
whole of Central and Northern Italy ; they had imposed 
their suzerainty upon Latium, and occupied Campania, 
while upon the Adriatic and Mediterranean seas their fleet 
was the terror of other maritime nations. 

The Etruscans were united, it is believed, in a confeder- 
acy of twelve cities, each of which was an independent state, 
with the right, not only of self-government, but of making 
war and peace on its own account. No list of the twelve 
cities has been preserved, but those which are generally con- 
sidered to have been the most important are Tarquinii (now 
Corneto), Veii (eleven miles from Rome), Volsinii (now 
Bolsena), Clusium (now Chiusi), Volaterrae (Volterra), 
Vetulonia (on the coast near Telamone), Perusia (Perugia), 
Cortona, Arretium (Arezzo). 

There were other towns, such as Fiesole, Pisa, Caere (now 



1 6 PERUGIA 

Cervetri), and Volci (now Vulci), which were certainly at 
one time also independent states. 

The middle of the fifth century B.C. marks the beginning 
of the decline in power of the Etruscan confederacy. The 
Samnites took Capua in 424 b.c. The Romans gained 
their first victory in 426, and, two years later, Fidense fell 
into their hands. 

The Gauls invaded Northern Italy in the fourth century, 
and the power of the Etruscans received a severe blow from 
the capture of Veii in 396 b.c. by the Romans. In the 
course of the next hundred years, the central part of the 
kingdom fell under the Roman yoke, and the defeat at 
Sentinum in 295 b.c. marks the end of the Etruscan 
supremacy. 

Under the influence of the Etruscans, Rome came in 
contact with the culture of Greece, for the Latin race, 
while it mastered Etruria, adopted the habits, the laws, and 
the arts of the conquered people. A greater glory was 
added to the Etruscans by becoming the instructors of the 
still greater nation of the Romans. The one fact above 
others which strikes us with regard to this people, is that 
nothing of what they wrote has come down to us except 
inscriptions, and these inscriptions, although perfectly 
legible, are almost entirely unintelligible. 

Our knowledge, therefore, about their religion, their 
government, and their arts is based upon no documents ; 
there are no certain dates, and no names. On the other 
hand, the genius of the Etruscan artists lay in the direction 
of realistic portraiture, so that we have a large number of 
lifelike images of the people as they lived, 

Besides this, there have been preserved in the tombs 
many of the homely things that they used in their daily 
lives, their weapons and ornaments, their pots and vases, 
so that we seem to have an intimate and somewhat familiar 
acquaintance with people about whom in all important 
matters we know nothing. 

We know how they dressed their hair, what kind of tongs 
and pins they used, how they slept and how they ate ; but 



ETRUSCAN PERUGIA 17 

we know little of their system of government, and almost 
nothing of their beliefs and aspirations. 

Religion. — In the judgment of antiquity the Etruscans 
were considered the most religious people among the nations 
of the West, but we can learn nothing directly of the nature 
of that religion. 

Judging from the sepulchral furniture, and from the 
ceremonies connected with the committing of the dead to 
their final resting-place, it would seem that at some stage 
of their development the Etruscans had been ancestor 
worshippers. Much importance was attached to the safe 
preservation of the ashes or of the bodies of the dead, for 
both burial and burning were used by the Etruscans. 
Food was placed in the tombs, and sacrifices were offered, 
and we are told that it was the custom at one time for 
relations to pass the night in the sepulchres, a custom 
commonly practised by those who believed that the powers 
of the dead might be by such means transmitted to the 
living. 

Whatever may have been the nature of this primitive 
belief, it is clear that the Etruscan religion became strongly 
tinged with Hellenic elements, although always preserving 
certain distinctive and peculiar features. It is probable 
that the people continued to follow the old burial customs, 
and the fashion of furnishing the tomb, long after changes 
in belief had been adopted which destroyed the significance 
.of the early practices. 

The doctrine of the veiled deities was purely Etruscan, 
foreign both to the Greeks and the Romans. The twelve 
hidden gods, " Dii involuti," were the supreme powers — 
mysterious, inscrutable, never to be seen, and never repre- 
sented. Below them in the divine hierarchy were the 
gods who executed the will of the superiors in so far as it 
related to mortals. Of these, the three principal were 
Tinia, corresponding to Jupiter, Cupra to Juno, and 
Menevra to Minerva. Temples were raised in every city, 
it is said, to each of these three deities. 

The doctrine of genii, which was adopted and developed 



18 PERUGIA 

by the Romans, is another feature of the Etruscan religion. 
A large number of attendant spirits, demons, fates, and 
furies watch over human beings, announce their approach- 
ing end, and go with the soul on its last journey. They 
appear continually in the paintings and sculptures of the 
tombs, and form an interesting study in themselves. 

Civil and ecclesiastical authority in Etruria was in the 
hands of an all-powerful hierarchy ; the princes or military 
chiefs were themselves priests skilled in divination, and 
the science of the worship of the gods was the hereditary 
possession of the Lucumones, a race of priestly nobles. 
Great attention was paid to divination by sacrifice, by the 
flight of birds, and by lightning, and the Etruscan Harus- 
pices, or augurs, were called to Rome to interpret abnor- 
mal portents by the Romans who adopted many of the 
practices of divination, but never mastered the science. 

The chief point of interest in the religion of the Etruscans 
is their belief in an after life. 

The tombs are furnished with armour, weapons, orna- 
ments, vessels for eating and drinking, as though the ghost 
continued to enjoy the material pleasures of this life. The 
bliss of the dead is pictured as the enjoyment of an eternal 
banquet, and the place of Shades is a place of feasting and 
revelry. At the same time, Death was not looked upon 
philosophically as the natural end or as the kindly visitant. 
All men are cut off violently by the hand of fate, in the 
midst of life. A hideous demon, the Charun of the Etrus- 
cans, strikes down the living with his hammer, or a Fury, as 
an ugly hag, touches the wrist of the victim and deprives 
him of life. Relations mourn and lament over the dead 
body, while the soul sets out on its uneasy journey to the 
underworld, alone, except for the fearful demon com- 
panions. 

Art. — The Etruscans were able and skilful workmen, but 
they were not richly gifted as artists. They imitated the 
works imported from Greece, yet their development was 
not organic. Each locality passed through various phases, 
but not in chronological sequence. In some cases we find 



ETRUSCAN PERUGIA 19 

an archaic and more primitive style succeeding a freer and 
more developed manner of representation. Abrupt changes 
abound, and no unification of styles took place until the 
final period of Etruscan art in the third century B.C. 

A certain industrial and commercial quality stamps the 
work of this people, and their sculptures, paintings, and 
jewellery are lacking in taste and refinement. 

They had little power of idealisation, and seem to have 
tried to represent things as they saw them, rather than to 
search for ideal types. On the other hand, they had a cer- 
tain instinct for portraiture, and succeeded in impressing 
a vivid and lifelike quality upon their work. 

Architecture. — Little remains now of the work done by 
Etruscan builders. Fragments of walls and portions of 
gateways are to be found in several Umbrian cities, notably 
in Perugia. The masonry consists of large irregular blocks 
laid in horizontal courses without cement. It is supposed 
that the temples must have closely resembled the Doric 
style. The pediments were loaded with sculpture, and 
fragments of the statues used for this purpose are to be 
found in several of the Etruscan collections. The sculp- 
tures appear as a rule to have illustrated the deeds of the 
particular deities who were worshipped in the sanctuary. 

Tombs. — The Etruscans practised both incineration and 
burial, and the tombs in which the ashes or bodies of the 
dead were preserved were, generally speaking, of three 
kinds. 

(1) The earliest form of tomb was that of a well, the 
ashes being stored in a vessel at the bottom, and covered 
with a large stone. Sometimes this vessel was in the form of 
a little hut of clay or bronze ; elsewhere it took the form of 
a vase with a symbolical bird upon the lid representing the 
spirit. In some districts the cinerary vase has a mask, 
taken from the face of the dead, attached to it, and at a 
later period this mask was replaced by a rough portrait 
head, which formed the lid. Most of the black ware called 
" Bucchero," and the primitive pottery with geometrical 
designs come from the well tombs. The sepulchres of a 



20 PERUGIA 

later date which can be visited by the traveller in Umbria 
are roughly of two sorts : 

(2) Those like the tombs of the Necropolis of Orvieto, 
which are built of massive blocks of sto»e, and grouped 
together so that they resemble a street of low buildings. 
Each house consists of one or two chambers,, within which 
the bodies of the dead were placed upon stone benches. 

(3) Tombs, such as those in the neighbourhoods of 
Perugia, Orvieto, and Chiusi, which are more in the nature 

• of caves hollowed from the rocks in the hillside. 

These cave tombs are, as a rule, cut out of the natural 
rock in imitation of buildings. The roofs are made to look 
as if the tomb were covered with slabs of stone, and other 
architectural decorations, such as cornices and doorways, 
are added to resemble masonry. The walls of such sepul- 
chres are frequently covered with paintings, and the dead 
are either laid upon benches, or their ashes are stored in 
stone chests or sarcophagi. 

THE ETRUSCAN MUSEUM 

A collection of Etruscan and Roman antiquities is 
housed in the buildings of the University. 

The Museum may be reached by a picturesque route, 
starting from the Piazza Danti, passing down the Via 
Vecchia under a massive archway. Turn to the l. into 
the Via delle Cantine, under another arch : descend the 
steps of the Via Appia, into the Via Acquedotto, and so 
reach the Via Ariodante Fabretti and the University which 
was formerly an Olivetan Monastery. The Museum, on the 
first floor, is open every day, 10 a.m. to 2 p.m. Entrance, 
one lira. 

In the passage are copies of Roman and Etruscan inscrip- 
tions and a few Roman sarcophagi. 

On the walls of the Staircase are Greek, Etruscan and 
Roman inscriptions. On the end of the balustrade is a 
sphinx which probably stood at the entrance of an Etrus- 
can tomb. The work is of great antiquity. 



THE ETRUSCAN MUSEUM 21 

In the Vestibule, at the top of the stairs, are severa stone 
monuments or " cippi " with inscriptions. They were 
used both by the Romans and Etruscans to mark the place 
of tombs and of boundaries. Opposite the door is a large 
rectangular cippus, No. 32, with one of the longest Etrus- 
can inscriptions that have come down to us. It was dis- 
covered in 1822 near Perugia and so far has defied all 
attempts at interpretation. It has been described vari- 
ously as an account of a feast, as a contract relating to 
boundaries, and as an ordinance for religious rites. 

In the centre of the room and near the window, Nos. 39 
and 40, two stone monuments with figures of dancers in 
delicate relief, in a primitive style dating from the seventh 
or sixth century B.C. The long and narrow proportions of 
the figures, and the manner of representing the hands and 
the feet together in profile, is characteristic of the archaic 
art of the Greeks. 

Pass through the glass doors, and continue straight 
on along the North Corridor. 

Close to the door are a number of urns for the ashes of 
the dead, in the shape of houses or temples. On the front 
is the design of two shields in profile with a star-shaped 
flower between. The symbolical significance of this design 
has not been satisfactorily explained. 

Nos. 188 and 189, with reliefs of the head of Medusa. 
These images occur frequently on the urns and in the 
tombs. It was supposed that they had power to protect 
the sepulchre against those who might seek to disturb it. 
According to the most popular version of the Greek legend, 
Medusa was one of the Gorgons, three sisters who lived 
on the edge of the land of darkness. She alone of the 
sisters was beautiful and mortal, but having by her pre- 
sumption offended the goddess Athene, she was made more 
terrible than her sisters, and her hair was turned into ser- 
pents. Perseus, with the help of the goddess, dared to 
enter the place of eternal twilight, and carried off the head 
of Medusa as a trophy. Athene fastened this head to her 
breastplate, and used it as an invincible weapon against her 



22 PERUGIA 

enemies, for the head had the miraculous power of turning 
those who looked on it to stone. 

The association of Medusa with the place of night, and 
the use of her head as a talisman, and as a powerful weapon 
against all foes, accounts for the presence of these images 
in the tombs. In early times the heads of Medusa were 
hideous and frightful, but at a later date they came to be 
represented with a calm expression and beautiful features. 
Examples of the early and late type may be seen in this 
museum. 

Many of the urns have figures upon the lids, reclining 
upon pillows as though seated at a banquet. As a rule 
very little labour has been expended upon them, but with 
few exceptions an effort has been made to secure a portrait. 
The young, the middle-aged and the elderly are presented 
just as they were in life, neither idealised nor ennobled, 
in the full enjoyment of their pleasures. It is noticeable 
that there are no effigies of children, and this absence of all 
reference to the " little dead " suggests a comparison with 
the Christian Catacombs, where the number of inscriptions 
to children at once strikes the attention. 

It is not obvious whether the men and women on the 
Etruscan urns are represented as living in this world or as 
having passed to another realm, where they are free from 
fate, and no longer dogged by death. If the latter, then 
the upper and lower parts of the urn present a striking 
contrast between the turmoil and dangers of the life of 
mortals and the imperturbable calm of the existence of the 
shades. Almost all the scenes on the lower part of the 
urns illustrate the tragedy of death and are taken from 
the Iliad and Odyssey. Scenes of combat, massacre, and 
sacrifice are most frequently chosen. 

191, on the l., is the fight between the two Theban 
brothers, Polyneikes and Eteokles, who slew one another 
in single combat. 

194 and 195, urns with figures of women on the lid^hold- 
ing|flowers. 

In the centre of the room is a small terra-cotta urn, 190, 



THE ETRUSCAN MUSEUM 23 

on the lid is a vigorous portrait sketch of a woman ; and 
on the sides a Medusa head, between griffins which are 
wrought with extraordinary freedom and vigour. The 
griffin, like the Medusa head, was placed on tombs and 
over the doors of the sepulchres, as a protector against evil 
powers. 

223. An open coffin with the well-preserved skeleton of 
a woman, found near Perugia. Beside her are her orna- 
ments and toilet necessaries : a mirror, a strigil, pots for 
ointments and cosmetics, and a piece of money to pay for 
her passage over the river to the infernal regions. 

235, near the window, is an urn with a spirited scene 
of the siege of Thebes, by Polyneikes, and the seven heroes 
of Argos. The Argive soldiers are trying to scale the walls, 
while the Thebans hurl down stones upon them. In the 
foreground Capaneus falls, struck by a thunderbolt from 
Zeus in punishment of his impiety. 

Nos. 238 to 268 are thirty urns from the Necropolis of 
the Rafia family, dating from the time of Etruscan supre- 
macy and ending in the Roman period. 

Nos. 243 and 244 are painted ; they represent Achilles 
pursuing Troilus, the son of Priam, who falls from his 
horse and is killed at the gate of Troy. 

245 has a composite sea monster, perhaps a marine deity, 
or a personification of the dangers of the sea. Such figures 
are often represented as fighting with and destroying 
human beings, and may be regarded as evidence that the 
Etruscans, whose wealth depended greatly upon their 
maritime commerce, attached importance to the propitia- 
tion of the sea deities. 

266, near the window, is the urn of Velius-Rapia, a 
magistrate who is standing at the gate of Hades. 

East Corridor. A number of small terra-cotta urns are 
stored in a cupboard. Many of them have identical 
reliefs, evidently cast from the same mould. The slaughter 
of the two Theban brothers, sea-monsters, and griffins are 
the principal subjects. The lying figures on the lids are 
wrapped in long cloaks ; there is no suggestion of the 



24 PERUGIA 

Christian idea of the sleep of the dead, or of the body 
awaiting the return of the soul — these little figures are like 
living people enjoying comfortable repose. 

367,, near the window, has the figures of a husband and 
wife reclining upon a couch in animated and smiling con- 
verse. 

368, opposite, has a realistic portrait figure of a young 
woman. 

366 to 324 are fragments of Roman workmanship. On 
the wall are some small panels of Roman mosaic. 

304 has a farewell scene between a husband and wife. 
324, the head of an empress, perhaps Faustina. , 325. A 
marble urn with beautiful and delicate relief of olive-trees. 
In a case are two busts, one very fine. 

279 to 274 are urns with inscriptions relating to the 
family of the Volumniii. 

279 has the figure of a young woman leaning on her 
elbow in an easy, graceful position. Underneath is her 
name, Thania Cafsinia Volumni. 

South Corridor. Nos. 67 to 77 are urns from the tombs 
of the Pomponia Plautia family, covering the period of the 
decline of the Etruscan and the beginning of the Roman 
era. The scene of the Sacrifice of Iphigenia occurs several 
times on the tombs of women. Iphigenia was sacrificed 
by her father, King Agamemnon, as a propitiation to the 
goddess Artemis, whose sacred stag had been slain in the 
chase. Human sacrifices continued among the Etruscans 
long after it had been abandoned by the Greeks. Young 
maidens were offered on the altar of Cupra (Juno), as we 
see realistically represented in a painting now in the 
Etruscan collection of the Louvre. 

173, near the window, is an urn of grey stone with a 
spirited figure of a winged soul riding on the back of a sea- 
dragon. The soul points with outstretched finger to the 
goal towards which it is swiftly carried. The journey of 
the soul to the underworld is generally represented by a 
figure on horseback, or on a sea-monster, sometimes it is 
implied by the figure of a horse alone. 



THE ETRUSCAN MUSEUM 25 

165 (also near the window), a man and woman playing 
a syrinx, and a cithern, are seated together on a sea- 
monster, a Hippocampus. 

Along the wall are several conical and pointed stones, 
used to mark the place of a tomb. 

107 has a scene from the myth of Circe. Ulysses frees 
one of his companions from the effects of the incantations 
of Circe. 

135, against the window wall, is another figure of the 
soul journeying to the underworld on the back of a prancing 
monster. 

West Gallery. No. 70. The relief represents the Killing 
of the Kalydonian Boar by Meleager, who thus freed the 
country from the punishment sent upon it by Artemis. 

66. A beautiful head of Medusa, coloured and surrounded 
by green leaves. Close by, 43, has figures on the lid which 
have been coloured. The men were generally painted a 
strong brownish red, and the women white. The relief 
on the front of a lion with square broad outlines, markedly 
resembles the lions in Romanesque art. 

Opposite the window is a sarcophagus of limestone, 
probably of the sixth century b.c. On the front is a 
funeral procession with captives and animals led to sacri- 
fice ; on the two sides are the mourners seated at the 
•funeral banquet. 

No. 58* is perhapt the most popular object in the 
museum, two figures on the lid of a sarcophagus, found 
near Chiusi. An obese middle-aged man lies in the usual 
attitude on a couch holding a patera. At his feet sits his 
Fate, a little old woman with wings on her shoulders, a 
large hooked nose, pointed chin and wrinkled brow. She 
lays her hand on the man's wrist and deprives him of life. 
There is no malevolence in her expression, and her victim 
appears to be either unconscious of the fatal touch or in- 
different to its consequences, regarding the future without 
fear or anxiety. 

On a stand in the centre of the room is a large sepulchral 
monument surmounted by a cone-shaped pillar, found near 



26 PERUGIA 

Perugia. The reliefs represent a deathbed scene (where 
two women hold a child in front of the dying mother), and 
the funeral procession. The style of the work is archaic 
and rigid, probably dating from the sixth century B.C. 

Return along the West Gallery to the south where is the 
entrance to the rooms containing the collection of vases, 
bronzes, etc. 

Room I. contains various objects of the prehistoric 
period of the Iron Age, such as vases, spear-heads, arrows, 
bracelets, and flints. 

Room II. In the centre of the room is a large Attic 
Krater, found near Perugia, with red figures upon a black 
ground. The subjects are Ceres sending Triptolemus to 
teach agriculture to men, and a group of gods and god- 
desses. In the cases are specimens of Italo-Greek and 
Etruscan pottery. The Etruscans followed the progres- 
sive changes of style in Greek pottery, but they never 
attained to the same artistic excellence. 

Case A contains vases with designs in black upon a red 
ground. The figures both of men and animals are hard and 
rigid and of exaggerated proportions. The muscles of the 
figures and the lines of the drapery are marked by white 
incised lines. Note No. 17, a man standing beside his 
horse. In this case are some good specimens of purely 
Greek vases of the later and more perfect style. The 
background is painted black, the figures are left the natural 
reddish colour of the clay, and the details marked with 
black or brown lines. Nos. 75, 81, and 89 are good 
examples. 

Case B. On the lowest shelf are some of the earliest 
pottery with geometrical patterns drawn in black upon 
the uncoloured clay. Similar designs to these are to be, 
found on the pottery of most semi-civilised races. (See 
in the Louvre, the Salle des origines comparees.) 

Case C has examples of Bucchero, black pottery made 
chiefly in Chiusi and the neighbourhood. The subjects 
of the reliefs on the pottery are usually rows of animals or 
symbols of the various deities. It is supposed that this 



THE ETRUSCAN MUSEUM 27 

ware belongs to a period when the strict and priestly 
character of the Etruscan religion did not permit the 
representations of the divine mysteries, and that it was 
only after long contact with the freer and more fanciful 
creed of the Greeks that the people of Etruria began to 
depict the histories of their deities. Notice a number of 
tall vases used for funeral purposes, with a bird on the lid, 
a symbol of the soul. On one shelf are several trays hold- 
ing small pots. They are commonly known as " Focolari," 
and they seem to have been used as toilet stands, but in 
some cases they were placed above hot ashes, and kept the 
vessels placed on them warm for the funeral feast. 

Room III. In the centre is a fine vase, No. 1096, found 
outside the Porta S. Angelo, in a tomb. Near the window 
is a Roman Amphora incrusted with lime deposits, which 
was found in the sea. 

Case A. A number of terra-cotta masks. No. 364. 
Head of Medusa, of very fine workmanship. The face is 
of the frightful type, with staring eyes, protruding tongue, 
and snakes twisted in the hair. There are other examples 
also of the beautiful type. On the lowest shelf are terra- 
cotta votive offerings of hands, feet, breasts, etc. 

Cases B and C. A number of small bottles, lamps, and 
children's toys found in the tombs. 

Room IV. In the centre case are a number of gold 
ornaments. The most noticeable is a large ear-ring found 
in the urn of a woman ; it is supposed to date from the 
third or second century b.c, a period when taste had 
suffered degradation, and more value was attached to 
costliness than to artistic merit. 

Case A contains glass bottles for balsam, Roman lead 
missiles for slings : they are inscribed with words of abuse 
addressed to the enemy. 

Cases B, C, and D contain various objects in bronze. The 
Etruscans became renowned throughout the ancient 
world for their skilled workmanship in bronze. In this 
room are bells, keys, rings, helmets, pins, pots, statuettes, 
and mirrors* 



28 PERUGIA 

Room V. In the centre is a fine Etruscan bronze mirror 
engraved with the subject of Helen and her brothers 
Castor and Pollux ; also a vase in bronze repousse. Near 
the window on a stand is a bronze helmet of very elegant 
design and elaborate workmanship. 

Case A has many long and narrow statuette figures. 
These were probably votive offerings corresponding in 
height to the requirements of the vow, but an economy 
in metal was effected in the thickness. On the third shelf , 
l. side, is the goddess of Health, Hygeia, with a patera 
in one hand and a serpent in the other. Beside her is the 
little goddess of Convalescence. On the opposite wall, 
Case B has a number of helmets, spears, arrow-heads. 
On a, shelf are bracelets and Fibulae, the Etruscan safety- 
pin. The fashion of dress at one period apparently in- 
volved the use of a large number of these pins, no less than 
twenty have been found in one sarcophagus. Dice made 
of bone and ivory were found in the tombs both of men and 
women. 

Case C has three bronze stands for playing a game of 
divination, called Cottabos. The principal object was to 
throw the contents of a wine-cup against the metal plate 
of the Cottabos without spilling any, so as to produce a 
clear metallic sound. As the lover threw the wine, he 
pronounced the name of his mistress, who was, judged to be 
favourable to his suit in proportion to the clearness of the 
sound produced. On either side of the case are parts of a 
curial chair. 

Room VI. The mountings of a chariot in c arly Grecian 
archaic style found near Perugia ; other parts of the orna- 
ments are in the Etruscan collections at the British 
Museum and in Munich. 

The following three rooms contain the Guardabt.ssi 
collection. 

Room VII. In Case H, against the wall, is a beautiful 
bronze mirror,* with Bacchus riding upon a panther, in 
high relief. The young slender god sits with ease and grace 
upon the beast, which seems the very embodiment of the 



THE ETRUSCAN MUSEUM 29 

freedom of the forest. The artist has brought before us 
something of the spiritual form of the vine born of the 
lightning and the dew. We have an image of the fiery 
heat of the sun, of the coolness of fresh leaves, of the ex- 
hilaration of swift movement. 

Case I has a number of engraved mirrors. 

Case L contains jewellery. The love of jewellery was a 
characteristic of the Etruscan race, but it is to be doubted 
whether any of the works of high artistic quality were done 
by the Etruscans themselves. The native work in com- 
parison with the imported Greek work is characterised by 
the same absence of taste, carelessness of finish, and lack 
of proportion as is found in the sculptures and paintings. 

Room VIII. has some good specimens of Bucchero from 
Chiusi, amongst them are several of the tall vases with a 
bird on the lid, also trays or Focolari. In the centre is a 
case with a collection of Roman and Etruscan signets. 

Room IX. On the wall opposite to the window is a vase 
with four figures of deities, a Medusa head, and two 
centaurs. There is also a collection of weapons of the 
Stone Age. 

Room X. has a collection of antiquities from Cyprus. 
In the centre of the room is a case containing the bones of 
Fortebraccio of Montone, a famous condottiere. 

The Hall of the University is reached from the entrance 
corridor by a door on the l. In the passage leading to the 
hall is a relief of the fifteenth century, the front of the 
sarcophagus of Ubaldo Bartolini, a famed legist and 
teacher of Perugia. The master, in hood and gown, sits 
at his desk, in a room filled with scholars. Those nearest 
to the master are seated at benches writing, the rest of the 
audience stands behind. 

Near by is a Ciborium from the old Church of S. Prospero, 
interesting as one of the few examples to be found in 
Umbria of the art destined to grow into the fully developed 
Romanesque style of the eleventh and twelfth centuries. 
The work is attributed to the eighth century, but whether 
this date can be trusted or no there need be little doubt 



30 PERUGIA 

that it is an effort of native Italian workmen to profit by 
Byzantine examples. There is the curious stiffening of 
forms, the incompetent rendering of classical detail, and the 
picturesque but unnatural realisation of living things which 
is so common in similar monuments in Northern Italy. On 
the arch facing the spectator the cross occupies the central 
place. In the triangular spaces at each side peacocks feed 
on grapes ; these are immortal souls enjoying the fruits of 
the terrestrial paradise. A similar idea is worked out on 
the arch at the back, where doves are feeding on the vine 
tendrils. 

The capitals from which the arches spring are carved with 
leaves in a tentative fashion. They look like the work of 
one who has seen good models, but has been unable to 
copy them effectively. 

In the Hall is a sarcophagus of early Christian times, 
which was used as the burial-place of Frate Egidio, the 
companion of S. Francis. It is a striking work, though not 
of the best period. A youthful and beardless Christ sits in 
the centre, and on each side, in niches separated by small 
columns, are the figures of Madonna and nine disciples. In 
the spaces formed by the canopies of the niches are wreaths, 
and birds feeding on fruit. On the cover of the tomb there 
is to the extreme l. a representation of Noah in the Ark 
receiving the olive branch from the dove, and two scenes 
from the story of Jonah : -to the R. he is cast out of the 
ship and swallowed by the whale, to the l. he has been 
thrown by the whale on the celestial shore, where he rests in 
the enjoyment of Paradise. The ark floating on the water 
signifies the Church, in which man is saved, and the pro- 
mise of salvation comes to Noah under the figure of the 
olive branch brought by the dove. The story of Jonah is a 
symbol of the Resurrection, the goal of those who have 
received the promise. 

On the lower part of the sarcophagus the Incarnation is 
proclaimed as the means by which the promise is made 
good. Christ is seated on a throne ; on His right stands 
Madonna, and in the other niches is a company of nine 



TOMBS OF THE VOLUMNII 31 

disciples, probably Apostles, from the scrolls they hold in 
their hands and their bare feet. The birds which feed on 
the branches above their heads are immortal souls sustained 
by the fruits of the vine of the Lord, while the wreaths are 
crowns of glory and of eternal life, the reward of those who 
are faithful to the end. The Christ is beardless, for in early 
times it was thought that youth was the proper attribute 
for the Son of God, who was not conceived of as suffering 
from the changes of time. The veiled and robed figure of 
Madonna has the charm of classical simplicity and grace ; 
like the Apostles, she has a scroll. The nine disciples are of 
various types and ages ; they are reserved and dignified 
Roman citizens, senators rather than fishermen. There is 
in these simple figures a fine sense of order, and a delicate 
feeling for balance suggestive of an ancient civilisation and 
a tradition which has become classical. 

Around the walls are a number of figures in high relief of 
the school of Agostino di Duccio, from the chapel of the 
Maesta della Volta. There are also some fragments by 
Arnolfo di Cambio (12 32-1 301). 

TOMBS OF THE VOLUMNII 

About three miles from Perugia, near to the station of 
Ponte S. Giovanni, and on the carriage road to Assisi, is an 
Etruscan necropolis with a considerable number of under- 
ground tombs, the largest of which has been kept open and 
made accessible for visitors. 

No opportunity should be missed of visiting this se- 
pulchre, which is of late date, about 150 B.C., and differs in 
several remarkable features from the tombs of Orvieto and 
Chiusi. The dead were not buried, but the ashes of the 
bodies when burned were stored in urns or chests ; and 
placed in these underground chambers. The chests are 
still to be seen in their original position, and surrounded by 
various articles of sepulchral furniture. A knowledge of 
the appearance of the tombs in the different districts will 
be found to add greatly to the interest of the contents of 



32 PERUGIA 

the museums. It is supposed that this sepulchre be- 
longed to one family, as the urns are all inscribed with 
one name, that of Velimnas, or, in Romanised form, 
Volumnius. 

The entrance to the tomb has been covered with a 
modern building that now serves as a storehouse for the 
urns taken from the other tombs of the necropolis, with 
which the land round about is honeycombed. 

A steep stairway cut out of the tufa leads to the doorway, 
once closed with a slab of travertine. On the door jamb is 
an inscription in Etruscan characters, which has been 
translated, " Arnth Velimnas, son of Larth and^ Arznea, 
protector and caretaker of this sepulchre, presents the 
lamps for the funeral feasts." 

The plan of the tomb may be roughly described as con- 
sisting of a nave, with a choir and transepts and four side 
chapels. 

The end chamber, corresponding to the choir, is the only 
part of the tomb where the contents have remained undis- 
turbed. The other rooms have been filled with chests 
found in the neighbourhood. 

We enter first a long vestibule, twelve feet by twenty- 
four feet, with a high-pitched roof carved in the form of 
rafters. Above the door of entrance is the figure of the 
sun, as a round globe, between two dolphins. Turning 
towards the choir, we see above the entrance a great head 
of Medusa, with bold, regular features, and wide, staring 
eyes. On either side are two smaller heads ; the one to 
the left has been destroyed, the one to the right represents 
Apollo. 

Symbols of the underworld, in the form of serpents 
made of terra-cotta, start out from the wall of entrance ; 
and immediately inside the doorway, hanging from 
the roof, is a little earthenware statuette of a winged 
genius. 

When we step into the small, low chamber representing 
the choir, we are at once in the presence of the Velimnas 
family. Four men and two women are reclining upon their 




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TOMBS OF THE VOLUMNII 33 

couches, on the tops of the chests which contain their ashes. 
The stone, or terra-cotta, has been covered with fine white 
stucco, and carefully finished. 

The figures represent a handsome, vigorous, and able 
race of people, gathered together here, as they might have 
been in life, in pursuit of material pleasures. There is 
nothing to indicate that the next life was conceived of more 
spiritually than as a continuation of the enjoyments of this 
life ; and although surrounded by sinister and gloomy 
images of death, these sculptured portraits look out into 
the darkness with serene calmness, and with undisturbed 
satisfaction in the pleasures of eating, drinking, and adorn- 
ing themselves. 

Aruns Volumnius, the head of the family, has the place 
of honour at the top of the room. His couch is elaborately 
ornamented, the pillows, coverlets, and decorations upon 
the posts are carefully realised. 

The noteworthy point, however, is that the chest is 
raised upon a pedestal, which is carved so that it resembles 
the facade of a tomb. There were originally four figures 
painted in the doorway, representing, perhaps, the shades 
of the dead, but the fresco has now almost disappeared. 
The entrance to this door is guarded by two seated statues 
of furies, or genii, holding torches. Their features are 
somewhat heavy, but the general effect of these 'figures, 
which have none of the characteristics of the frightful 
demon, is solemn and dignified. 

To the l. of Aruns is the chest with the ashes of his 
daughter, to the R. that of his son, and beside the latter 
there is a fine seated figure of a woman described as Veilia 
Velimna Arnthial. She sits upon a throne or chair of 
state, and one hand is raised to her shoulder apparently in 
the act of arranging her dress. Her face bears more of the 
stamp of an idealised portrait than is usual in Etruscan art, 
and is very beautiful. 

These chests are judged to be of the second century B.C., 
and the fact that some of the inscriptions are in Latin, but 
that the greater number are in Etruscan characters, would 



34 PERUGIA 

point to a time when Etruria had been conquered by Rome, 
but not entirely Latinised. 

The urns stored in the side chambers resemble many of 
those to be found in the museum. Some of the lids have 
recumbent figures, others are in the form of the roof of a 
house or temple. 

The subjects upon the chests represent the familiar 
scenes of the combats and tragic deaths of heroes , the 
punishment bestowed by the gods for the sin of presump- 
tion in mortals, and the mysterious journey of the soul to 
the underworld. There are, amongst others, the Sacrifice 
of Iphigenia, the Hunting of the Kalydonian Boar, the 
Death of Troilus at the Gate of Troy ; also a number of 
single figures of marine deities, and of sea-monsters con- 
veying the soul upon its way. 

Under the shelter of the modern building, at the top of 
the stairs, there are a number of chests, some of which 
have reliefs of a less usual type. On the r. of the stairs is 
a scene in which two men, armed with weapons, stand on 
either side of a post or tree. On another urn is a spirited 
design of a griffin attacking a man, a subject which is fre- 
quently to be found in Romanesque sculpture. 

On the l. is a human sacrifice, where the victim is held 
down upon the altar by the hair, and the priest stands 
ready with his weapon. The choice of such a subject as 
this, and the manner of representation, is an evidence of 
the predilection of the Etruscans for realism in art carried 
even to the point of brutality. The figure of a man be- 
tween two genii standing upon pedestals may represent a 
contest for the soul between good and evil attendant 
spirits, a subject often represented upon the chests at 
Chiusi. 

Torre di Manno, or Tempio di S. Manno 

About three miles from Perugia, in a south-westerly 
direction, is an Etruscan tomb, called the Tempio di S. 
Manno, which is of interest as an example of fine masonry, 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 35 

and as evidence that the Etruscans knew and used the arch 
in construction. 

Leaving Perugia, we follow the road nearly to the station, 
and, turning off to the R., continue in the same direction 
as the railway towards the station of Magione. 

A small farm has been built round about the vault, and 
above the tomb itself is a little chapel with a tower, which 
gives the popular name to the place. 

Passing through the farmyard with its picturesque sur- 
roundings, we go down a flight of steps into a semi-circular 
vault, beautifully built of travertine blocks and unce- 
mented. It resembles the tomb known as the Deposito del 
Gran Duca at Chiusi. 

On each side of the room are vaulted recesses, in one of 
which are blocks of stone supposed to have been altars. 
They are grooved at the upper edge as if to carry off the 
blood, and their presence has caused the vault to be re- 
garded as a temple. According to Dennis, however, 
ancient sepulchres frequently included a shrine, where 
offerings were made to the spirits of the dead. 

An inscription of unusual length in Etruscan characters 
is cut in clear large letters upon the side of the vault to 
the l. of the entrance. From the open ground outside of 
the farm buildings is a view which will well repay those 
who make the excursion. 

A magnificent panorama of the city of Perugia lies before 
us, from S. Pietro in the south-east, to S. Francesco al 
Monte and S. Angelo in the north-west. 

MONUMENTS IN THE CENTRE OF THE TOWN 

The Palazzo Pubblico and Picture Gallery 

The Palazzo Pubblico is not of one date throughout, but 
a fair degree of uniformity in style has been maintained in 
the different parts. The building is mainly of the four- 
teenth century, when the Guelph party and the wealthy 
townsmen known as " Raspanti " were in power. It has 



36 PERUGIA 

none of the character of a fortified castle such as we see in 
the Palazzo Vecchio and the Bargello at Florence ; it is 
designed for purposes of city government only. Its archi- 
tecture is not interesting as such, nevertheless there is a 
general air of magnificence symbolical of the thriving 
commune, ruled by well-to-do citizens. 

A building for public purposes was begun at the end of 
the thirteenth century, the year 1281 being usually given 
as the date. In 1300 a number of houses occupying part of 
the site of the present palace were bought, so that a more 
honourable place might be built, and in connection with 
this purchase it is mentioned that quarrels had already 
arisen about S. Severo, a church which occupied part of the 
site. In 1333 the foundation of the central part of the 
present building was laid, and the fine doorway opening on 
to the Corso is attributed to 1340. The Priors had been 
living in the palace of the Canonica, but in 1346 additions 
were made to the Palazzo Pubblico, and in 1353 they went 
to live in it. Dormitories for the Priors were added in 1429, 
and the mass of building as we now see it was completed at 
the southern end, when the part including the Sala del 
Cambio was begun in 1452. 

The principal doorway of the Palazza Pubblico is a fine 
work covered with elaborate detail, and dating from about 
1340. The general effect is extremely rich, the mouldings, 
jambs, and lintels are wrought with great care, and the 
result is picturesque in spite of over-elaboration and want 
of breadth and boldness in the design. 

At the springing of the outer arch on each side are 
griffins resting on brackets. Below them, and supporting 
the pilasters at the sides of the door, are lions. Here we 
have the ensigns of the city and of the Guelph party. 

The pilasters resting on the lions are sculptured with 
figures, to some of which inscriptions are attached. On 
the left at the top is a young woman dancing, inscribed 
" allegricia." Below is a woman with two torches, one 
lighted — perhaps a figure of Vigilance. The lowest figure 
is " Humilitas," with a lamp in her hand and a lamb at her 




Photograph: Alinari 

WINDOWS IN THE PALAZZO PUBBLICO, SIENA 
Compare with the windows in the Palazzo Pubblico at Perugia 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 37 

feet. On the R., the upper figure, a woman holding a 
sword, is inscribed as " Magna Veritas." In the middle, a 
woman with a palm branch and an animal beside her, may 
be a figure of Peace. The lowest figure has two serpents 
twined about her, probably Prudence. 

In the tympanum are three statues. Two are bishops, 
and the other is a youthful figure in a dress resembling that 
of the deacon S. Lorenzo on the fountain in the piazza. 
Both the bishops are middle-aged, or elderly, and neither of 
them could therefore (as is sometimes supposed) represent 
S. Louis the Bishop, who died as a young man. The three 
figures are probably those of SS. Lorenzo, Costanzo, and 
Ercolano. 

The moulding which encircles the tympanum is enriched 
with coats of arms and ensigns of Perugia and her allies. 
There is the Griffin of the City, the Lily of Florence, the 
Lilies of the French house of Naples, the Papal Keys, also 
shields with the legend S.P.Q.R., reminding us that at this 
time Rienzi established the Holy Roman Republic. On 
the 7th June 1347, he sent letters to Perugia and other 
Italian towns inviting them to send deputies to a national 
parliament in Rome on the 1st August. On that day 
Rienzi published a decree declaring the City of Rome to be 
the head of the World, and at night the deputies were enter- 
tained at a great banquet. Next day there was celebrated 
the festival of the unity of Italy, and flags were presented 
to the deputies of the towns. The banner of Constantine, 
with the white eagle on a red ground, and with the words, 
" Asia, Africa, Europa," was given to Perugia. 

The jambs and lintels of the door are covered with small 
figures, among which will be found representations of 
Justice, Avarice, etc., but they are not named, and most of 
them are not of recognised types that permit of identifica- 
tion. In the centre of the lintel, however, it is possible to 
distinguish the Judgment of Solomon. The king is seated 
on his throne, commanding the soldier to divide the living 
child. To the l. is the false mother, who approves the 
decision, and on the r. is the true mother, begging that 



38 PERUGIA 

the child may be saved. This, from its position, is in- 
tended to be the central idea of the sculpture. According 
to a mediaeval saying, " The world is best disposed when 
Justice is most potent therein/' and among the Italian 
communes it was a common idea to proclaim this truth on 
their public buildings. In the Palazzo Pubblico at Siena, 
in the fresco representing " Good Government," Justice 
guided by Wisdom is the controlling force in the State ; 
and in the Ducal Palace at Venice one of the great corner- 
stones has this same subject of the Judgment of Solomon 
sculptured upon it. 

Entering by the main doorway from the Corso, and 
mounting the stair, we turn to the l. and reach the Sala del 
Consiglio. Over the door, in the lunette, is a painting of 
Madonna and Child by Fiorenzo di Lorenzo. This hall is 
called the Sala del Malconsiglio, for it was here that it was 
agreed to set free the prisoners of Hawkwood's English 
Company, who afterwards defeated the Perugians. 

In the Sala d'Udienza there is a portrait of Julius III. 
(1550-1555) by Adone Doni of Assisi. There is also a list 
of the twenty-five persons killed on the 20th June 1859 m 
the conflict with the papal soldiers. 

In the reception-room of the Syndic are modern pictures 
representing Biordo Michelotti (d. 1398), Braccio Forte- 
braccio (d. 1424), Piccinino (d. 1444); and other illustrious 
persons connected with Perugia. 

On the same level as these rooms, but to the r. of the 
main staircase, is the Hall of the Notaries. It is an im- 
mense room, of which the roof is supported by a series of 
cross arches. On the walls are coats of arms. 

Returning to the main staircase and passing to the floor 
above, there is to the l. the Picture Gallery, and to the 
r. the Library belonging to the town. 

The Picture Gallery 

[Art in Umbria and in Tuscany had this much in com- 
mon : it was a heritage from Etruscan ancestors. For the 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 39 

rest, the widely differing circumstances of the two pro- 
vinces caused a marked divergence in development. 

Through Tuscany lay the highway of the nations ; its 
rich soil and many natural advantages led to the accumu- 
lation of wealth by a race keenly alive to every force that 
moved mankind. The high-lying valleys of Umbria, on 
the other hand, were., in the Middle Ages, cut off from 
contact with the great world by the mountain ranges sur- 
rounding them. There was no accumulation of wealth ; 
no great seats of learning were founded ; no politics other 
than those of their own towns closely affected them. This 
life, apart from the movements and interests of the age, 
shielded as it was from the temptations of material wealth 
and beyond the reach of the intellectual development of 
the times, led to a certain exclusiveness and exaltation of 
temper depending on a keen sensibility to emotion com- 
bined with a narrow mental horizon. Devotional feeling, 
rather than philosophical habit, is a note of the higher type 
of the Umbrian mind. 

Niccolo da Foligno, Bonfigli, Fiorenzo di Lorenzo, Peru- 
gino and Pinturicchio began the practice of their art after 
the brilliant awakening of the early Renaissance had 
captivated men's minds ; and they were all dead before the 
rising tide of the Catholic reaction had chilled the national 
genius. They lived and painted in the golden age of 
Italian Art. 

In the fifteenth century the people of the Umbrian 
valleys were no longer moved by the vigorous imagination 
of such men as S. Francis or of Jacopone da Todi, they 
were content, with simple devotion manifested in tradi- 
tional observance. It is this state of mind that the 
Umbrian painters so wonderfully represented. They 
painted the romance of the soul in its simplest operations, 
they imagined its moods, they expressed it in an atmos- 
phere of mild contemplation, they perfected its expression 
in a beauty artificial but delicate, and with an elegance 
almost exotic. The flash of insight, of inspiration, of 
tense emotion seldom interfered with the calm detachment 



4o PERUGIA 

of their imaginations ; they knew " no bitter or severe 
delight." They blandly accepted things as they found 
them ; their art owed little to enthusiasm, still less to 
emphasis. It was saved from commonplace by its sensi- 
bility to emotion, and by a certain aloofness of temper. It 
was never vulgar ; it scorned no homely virtue ; its sim- 
plicity saved it from the coarse struggle for popularity. 

If we consider the history of Umbrian art as a whole we 
shall see that there was no serious attempt to deal with 
the nude, nor was there any development of portraiture. 
No Umbrian painter devoted his art to schemes of philo- 
sophy and religion such as we find in the Spanish chapel at 
Florence, with the possible exception of Perugino in the 
Sala del Cambio. Life was never portrayed in terms of 
classical culture as the Paduan painters tried to do. There 
is hardly any of that somewhat vulgar feeling for realism 
which prompted Ghirlandajo to paint the story of S. John 
the Baptist as if the child were a member of the noble family 
of the Tornabuoni. Nor is the history, of Umbria set forth 
in any series of pictures such as the Venetians delighted to 
paint, recording their victories and their lordship over 
many lands. 

It is characteristic of Umbrian artists that they seldom 
lost this primitive quality, even when they shared the widest 
experience of current life and art. The best-known names 
of the Umbrian school in the fifteenth century are con- 
nected more or less closely with Perugia, but the begin- 
nings of their art are to be found in many parts of the 
province. 

At Gubbio the name of Oderisi, a miniaturist of the 
thirteenth century, is well known from Dante's reference 
to him ; he was employed at Bologna. Guido Palmerucci, 
born probably about 1280, was painting in Gubbio in the 
first half of the fourteenth century, and throughout that 
century the family of Nelli produced a sculptor, Matttolo, 
and a painter, Martino, whose son Ottaviano lived until 
1444. At Fabriano Allegretto Nuzzi was the first notable 
painter and one of the most considerable provincial 



Pliotografih : Brogi 

PORTRAIT OF A VALLOMBROSAN MONK 

(By Perugino. In the Accademia, Florence) 

One of the few portraits painted by Perugino 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 41 

artists of his time. He matriculated in Florence in 1346 
and died at Fabriano in 1373 or 1374. Critics are not 
entirely agreed about the influences which affected his art. 
Bernardo Daddi, Orcagna, and Ambrogio Lorenzetti have 
all been suggested. He has been regarded as the master 
of Gentile da Fabriano. If there was any relation it must 
have been one of general influence, as the supposed date 
of Gentile's birth, between 1360 and 1370, is about the 
same as the time at which the elder painter probably died. 
Gentile da Fabriano was the greatest artist produced by 
these mountain towns up to the middle of the fifteenth 
century. He, however, neither lived nor painted much in 
Umbria, and his influence is to be looked for in other parts 
of Italy. 

In San Severino a certain Giacomo and Lorenzo painted 
at the end of the fourteenth and the beginning of the 
fifteenth century, and another, Lorenzo the younger, sup- 
posed to have been the son of the elder Lorenzo, worked on 
until 1496. Lorenzo the elder was probably a follower of 
Allegretto Nuzzi. 

At Orvieto Ugolino di Prete Ilario and Pietro di Puccio 
were working in the fourteenth century. At Perugia there 
are many fragments dating from this period by local 
masters of minor importance. In the fifteenth century 
the influence of Sienese art was powerful in Umbria, due 
in part to the repeated visits of Taddeo Bartolo. In 1445 
Giovanni Boccati da Carrier ino became a citizen of Perugia. 
The examples of his work now in the gallery show that he 
was a poor painter, but as the possible master of Bonfigli 
and Matteo da Gualdo he is of some importance. In the 
case of a mature artist the general influence is of more 
significance than the apprenticeship to a particular master. 

There were in Tuscan art two distinct tendencies which 
affected the Umbrian masters. One was represented by 
painters like Lorenzo Monaco and Fra Angelico, the other 
by Paolo Ucello, Piero della Francesca, and Ant. Pollaiuolo. 
Speaking generally, the first represented the religious and 
monastic mind, while the latter represented the scientific 



42 PERUGIA 

school^ the men who developed the art of perspective and of 
design. 

The influence of Fra Angelico passed into Umbria 
through his follower Benozzo Gozzoli (1420-1498), a man 
more apt to transmit the outward form and manner than 
the essential spirit of the great Florentine Dominican. 
Benozzo was employed at Montefalco in the year 1452, and 
he also did work at the Sapienza, in Perugia, in 1456. 
Niccolo da Foligno and Antonio Mezzastris (also of 
Foligno) were his pupils, while Matteo da Gualdo, Gio- 
vanni Francesco da Rimini, Lorenzo da Viterbo, and 
Fiorenzo di Lorenzo are supposed to have been influenced 
by him. 

The influence of the scientific Tuscan school is supposed 
to have reached Umbria through Piero della Francesca 
(1416 P-I492), Antonio Pollaiuolo (1429-1498), and their 
pupil and scholar Luca Signorelli (1 441-152 3). 

Fiorenzo di Lorenzo (1440-1521) united in himself the 
two strains of Florentine teaching already noticed. 

The great period of Umbrian art, which in the middle of 
the fifteenth century was centred in Perugia, is connected 
with the names of Perugino (1446- 1524) and Pinturicchio 
(1454-15 1 3) ; both of them are said to have been pupils of 
Fiorenzo di Lorenzo. 

Under these two masters there grew up a large school, 
including Raphael, Lo Spagna, Eusebio di S. Giorgio, 
Giannicola Manni, Francesco Melanzio, Sinibaldo Ibi of 
Gubbio, Domenico Alfani, and many others. 

Raphael when a youth worked in the shop of Perugino, 
and learned some of the school manner of his master. The 
history of the great painter belongs to Florence, as much as 
to Umbria, although by birth and in some degree by early 
habit he is more nearly connected with the latter than the 
former school. 

It must be noted that there was no school of Um- 
brian sculpture. There are in Umbria Tuscan monu- 
ments, such as the fountain at Perugia, the facade of 
the Duomo at Orvieto, and the reliefs on San Bernardino 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 43 

at Perugia, which rank each in their own way among the 
great works of Italian sculptors. These Tuscan masterpieces 
however stirred up no movement among native artists, and 
there was practically no Umbrian school of sculpture. 
With all its limitations Umbrian art remains to us 
as a valuable record of Umbrian life. It is less affected 
than the art of the great centres by currents of feel- 
ing and modes of thought, which lost their note of 
individuality by the fact that they belonged to the world 
at large, and not to Tuscans or Venetians or Lombards 
only. 

In the art of these secluded valleys we reach down to 
the true character of the people from which St Francis 
sprang, and we can well forgive its limitations in return 
for the intimate picture of primitive character unaffected 
by the stir and worry of the great world. 

The Banners. — There is one kind of picture which ought 
to be mentioned as characteristic of the art of Central Italy 
and of the temper of the people. This is the banner used 
alike as a means of display and to express the overwrought 
feelings of a terror-stricken people. 

Perugia was liable to terrible outbreaks of pestilence. 
In 1348 there was great mortality, and so deadly was the 
disease, that it is said neither priest nor frate would confess 
the sick. Between April and August 100,000 individuals 
are supposed to have died in Perugia and the surrounding 
territories, and crowds of people went in procession doing 
penance and fasting. On the 2nd of May in this year there 
was found under the high altar of the Church of S. Fiorenzo 
the body of that saint. On the 4th of May there was a 
great procession of priests, frati, and people ; and they 
carried the body through the towns, praying God that of 
His mercy He would be pleased to make the pestilence 
cease through the merits and the intercession of S. Fior- 
enzo. The banners such as we see to-day in the Church 
of Sta. Maria Nuova and in the gallery in Perugia, help 
us to realise the horror of the unfortunate people. These 
pictures date from a century later, but pestilence continued 



44 PERUGIA 

to sweep over the town long after the great outbreak of 

1348.] 

One entering the gallery we pass through a large hall 
hung with pictures of no importance, and go on to the 
Sala dei Cimelii. 

Sala I. — This room contains a number of panels, some 
of which are painted in the rude native manner, founded 
on the Byzantine style, and others in the Sienese style of 
the end of the thirteenth and beginning of the fourteenth 
century. 

On the wall opposite the window, Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 are 
small panels in the Italo-Byzantine manner. -On the 
same wall, No. 6, a large crucifix attributed to Margarttone 
of Arezzo is dated in 1272. Over the inscription Madonna 
appears with hands spread in prayer and, in a circle above, 
Christ holds a book with part of the inscription visible, 
" Ego sum ..." At the foot of the cross is a small 
kneeling S. Francis. The figure of Christ has the same 
strangely defined anatomy as the early Tuscan examples 
in the first corridor of the Uffizi. Those who know the 
picture by Margaritone in the National Gallery will find 
little resemblance to it in this work If the date be ac- 
cepted the crucifix is practically contemporary with the 
Pisan sculpture on the fountain in the piazza. 

No. 7. Passion scenes with Madonna and Child in the 
Italo-Byzantine manner. 

Nos. 9 and 10. Two pictures of Madonna and Child in 
the Sienese style. 

No. 11. Triptych. Passion scenes with S. Anna and 
the Virgin, and Madonna and Child, attributed to Bona- 
ventura Berlinghieri, one of a family of painters who were 
working in Lucca in the thirteenth century. 

No. 14. An elaborate altar-piece by Meo or Bartolommeo, 
a Sienese, who settled in Perugia in 131 9 ; note the richly 
decorated nimbuses and embroidered draperies, and the 
generally developed manner as compared with the rude 
Italo-Byzantine painting of the panel No. 2. The panel 
No. 14 represents more or less the condition of Sienese art 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 4 5 

among the smaller masters of the time of Duccio. On the 
opposite wall ; No. 22, Madonna and Child marks the 
change which took place in the Sienese school under the 
influence of the Lorenzetti. The three pictures, Nos. 2, 
14, and 22, mayjbe taken to illustrate the gradual elimina- 
tion of the Byzantine style from Italian art. 

No. 24. A large altar-piece, Madonna and Child with 
angels and saints. 

No. 26. Madonna and Child between SS, : Dominic and 
Peter Martyr. 

. No. 29. A small fragment attributed to Giunia da Pisa> 
a name usually given to the painter who is supposed to 
have begun the frescoes in S. Francesco at Assisi. 

In the centre of the room are cases with processional 
crosses and a pastoral staff of painted ivory dating from 
the eleventh century. Note the lamb encircled by the 
dragon which forms the volute. 

Sala II. — Ancient chapel of the Priors. 

On the walls are frescoes painted by Benedetto Bonfigli ; 
he was employed by the Priors in 1454. The work was to 
be judged by one of three artists, Fra Angelico, Domenico 
Veneziano, and Fra Filippo Lippi. The decision was given 
by the last-named in 1461 ; he advised that Bonfigli should 
be employed to paint the rest of the chapel and that for 
the work four hundred Florentine florins should be paid. 
The painting went on so slowly that when Bonfigli came 
to make his will in 1496 (in which year he died) he set 
apart a sum for finishing it in case he was unable to do so. 

Three of the frescoes are concerned with S. Ercolano, 
bishop of Perugia, four others with S. Louis of Toulouse. 

(1) The siege of Perugia ; by the Goths. In the sixth 
century the Emperor Justinian determined to reassert the 
imperial power in Italy where the Gothic kings (Theodoric 
and his successors) had ruled for half-a-century. The 
siege of Perugia was one of the incidents in the struggle. 
The defence of the town was directed by S. Ercolano, the 
bishop ; and although in this particular case it was the 
Goths who prevailed, the imperialists were successful on 



46 PERUGIA 

the whole, and the authority of Constantinople was for a 
short time re-established throughout Italy. The picture 
represents the last phase of the siege : food had run short, 
and, so that he might deceive the enemy, the bishop caused 
an ox to be fed with the last grain in the town and then 
thrown over the walls. Traitorously, or by misadventure, 
the ruse was frustrated by a young cleric. The scene is 
laid in the piazza of S. Ercolano, where the ox lies dead. 
Before the king stands the youth ; the Goths have been 
undeceived and they attack vigorously. According to 
S. Gregory, this happened in 552, when the city was taken, 
the bishop was flayed, decapitated, and thrown over the 
walls. Some devout persons found the body and beside 
it that of a dead child ; they were buried together, as we 
see in the lower right-hand corner of the fresco. Forty 
days later the Perugians were ordered to return to their 
homes. The body of the saint was found uncorrupt and 
with no sign of flaying, while the body of the child was 
decayed. The head of the saint joined itself to the body ; 
the child, by the grace of God, when laid by the body of 
the saint, came back to life and lived for seven years. The 
frescoes Nos. 2 and 3 depict the translations of the body, 
which seems to have been taken first to S. Pietro and sub- 
sequently to S. Lorenzo. 

The frescoes Nos. 5, 6, 7, and 8 describe the acts of S. 
Louis of Toulouse ; he was the eldest son of Charles the 
Lame, the Angevin King of Naples, and grand-nephew of 
S. Louis IX., King of France. In his boyhood he was 
imprisoned as a hostage for his father, and when he was 
free he renounced his rights to the crown of Naples, and 
joined the brethren of S. Francis. He was afterwards 
appointed Archbishop of Toulouse. 

No. 5. Consecration of S. Louis. He stands before the 
Pope in his grey habit. His single-hearted devotion 
seems for a moment to have aroused some sense of human 
dignity and worth in the mind of Bonfigli. 

No. 6. Miracle of the fish, tells the 1 story of how a 
merchant who had lost a bag of money at sea finds it in 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 47 

the body of a fish by the intervention of S. Louis. The 
fresco No. 7 is destroyed. No. 8 depicts the funeral ser- 
vice for the young archbishop. He lies on the bier, in 
the Franciscan habit, covered with a robe embossed with 
the lilies of France. A bishop and a number of brethren 
recite the office ; their figures are short and undistinguished, 
their faces little more than caricatures of common types. 
The scene is set in a church shown in section and with no 
attempt at pictorial effect. 

The interest of these frescoes by Bonfigli consists mainly 
in incidental illustration of the habits and dress of the time, 
and particularly of the appearance of the town of Perugia in 
the fifteenth century. 

In the centre of the room are two silver gilt chalices, one 
of the fourteenth the other of the sixteenth century. 

Sala III. — Frescoes of the fourteenth century. 

These frescoes have been removed from the Church of 
S. Elizabeth ; the date on No. 9 is 1330. They may be 
regarded as examples of the painting current in Perugia 
at the time that Giotto and Taddeo Gaddi were painting 
in Florence, while Simone Martini and the Lorenzetti repre- 
sented Sienese art at the same period. 

Turn to the R. 

No. 1. Madonna delle Grazie sheltering her votaries. 

No. 9. The miracle by which the husband of S. Elizabeth 
found the alms that she carried to the poor turned into 
roses in her lap. 

No. 16. Large figures of SS. Anthony the abbot, Anthony 
of Padua, and James. 

No. 23. S. Peter crucified. 

No. 25. Madonna and Child, dated 1348. 

Sala IV. — A corridor containing various engravings, 
copies, photographs, etc., interesting in their connection 
with the gallery. 

Sala V. — Several of the principal pictures in this room 
belong to the Sienese school. A glance round the room 
gives an impression of abundant and rich decoration, 
subdued to its purpose of beautiful and harmonious colour. 



48 PERUGIA 

of graceful and refined form, and of a grave, reverend, and 
meditative attitude. Madonnas and saints look out from 
their gilt backgrounds as types of qualities rather than as 
men and women ; it is the preaching of repentance, or the 
constancy of the martyrs, or the idea of Divine Love, or the 
life of self-denial that moved the imagination of the painters 
rather than the men and women who suffered and prayed 
and loved. 

Turn to the r. 

No. 4. A fresco from the convent of.Sta. Giuliana, the 
martyrdom of the saint. 

No. 10. Another fresco from the same convent. The 
saint shelters the nuns under her mantle. At her side 
stand S. Christopher and Cardinal Giovanni, who founded 
the convent, dated 1376. 

_No. 12. Triptych. In the centre, marriage of S. Cather- 
ine. To the r., SS. Ercolano and Costanzo ; to the l., 
S. Antonio of Padua and S. Louis of Toulouse with S. John 
Evangelist. In the central part of the picture S. Catherine 
of Alexandria receives the ring in token of her mystic 
union with Christ ; to the l., another virgin martyr, S. 
Agnes, bears the Lamb in her bosom ; between these two 
saints kneels the small figure of S. Elizabeth of Hungary 
with her lap full of roses. Over the side groups are two 
scenes ; to the l., S. Francis receives the stigmata, and to 
the R., S. Jerome has a vision of the cross. In the predella, 
to the R., the baptism of Christ ; to the l., the three Maries 
visit the tomb ; in the centre there is a scene probably 
from the martyrdom of S. Agnes, and S. Elizabeth receives 
the sick. The picture is a summation of the monastic 
ideal, leading by the way of Faith (typified by the white 
robe of S. Agnes), Hope (shadowed in the green robe of 
S. Catherine) and Love (figured in the glowing red of 
the Cherubim), to that union with the divine, of which 
the mystical union of the Child with S. Catherine is a 
symbol. 

No. 18. The Descent of the Holy Spirit. Taddeo Bartolo, 
dated 1403. An awkward and ungraceful composition, 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 49 

The problems of perspective and foreshortening have been 
beyond the painter's grasp in this example. 

No. 19. S. Paul, by Taddeo Bartolo, 

No. 21. S. Francis with SS. Anthony of Padua and Erco- 
lano to the l. ; to the r., S. Louis of Toulouse and S. Cos- 
tanzo. S. Francis is surrounded by a glory of cherubim 
whose red wings are typical of Divine love ; he stands on 
the forms of Pride, Lust, and Avarice, the last-named 
figured by a nun clinging to a purse. S. Louis of Toulouse, 
who abjured the crown of Naples, has the crown at his feet ; 
as a member of the house of France, he wears over the 
Francescan habit a robe embroidered with lilies. 

No. 23. Madonna and Child, by Taddeo Bartolo. At 
the sides SS. Magdalen, John the Baptist, John the Evan- 
gelist, and Catherine, from S. Francesco al Prato. We 
note the supreme skill of the Sienese school in decoration, 
and their love of magnificent yet strictly harmonious 
colour. 

No. 24 (over the door). S. Peter, by Taddeo Bartolo, 
from S. Francesco al prato. 

Sala VI. — The story of Braccio Fortebraccio is painted 
on the frieze by Papacello, a scholar of Luca Signorelli, 
who worked with Guilio Romano ; or, according to others, 
the work is by Giovanni Caporali. 

Turn to the R. 

No. 1. Madonna and Child with saints, by Domentco 
Bartolo of Siena, dated 1438. A decorative panel on a gold 
background, each saint stands in his own niche ; there is 
no attempt to fuse the figures into a pictorial grouping. 

Nos. 3, 4, s, and 6 are attributed to Matteo da Gualdo, 
who flourished between 1460 and 1503 ; he was a pupil of 
Giovanni Boccati da Camerino. 

t No. 5. Madonna and Child with SS. Jerome and Chiara. 
The colour is cold and the general effect of the picture is 
harsh, but the strong and vigorous types of the painter give 
character and force to the work. 

On the wall opposite. 

No. 10. Scenes of the Passion, and miracles of S. Ber- 



50 PERUGIA 

nardino. He raises up a child ; walks on the sea ; heals the 
sick, by Mariano di Antonio, a painter whose name 
occurs in 1467. 

No. 9 (on the upper line). A damaged panel by an un- 
known hand. Story of the Blessed Egidio, the friend of 
S. Francis. The head of Egidio is still visible. The coun- 
tenance is as of one who has. " fought with beasts of 
Ephesus " ; spiritual fire burns in the old weather-beaten 
face. 

No. 12. Madonna and Child with S. John Baptist and 
three others , by Lello da Velletri, a painter of the second 
half of the fifteenth century. 

No. 14. Madonna and Child with saints, by Pietro da 
Orvieto. Note the characteristic figure of the Bishop S. 
Severus. 

No. 15. Pieta with the instruments of the Passion. 

No. 16. Madonna and Child, by Gentile da Fabriano. 
The figures are carefully and elaborately modelled. Be- 
neath, seven angels carry a long scroll of music from which 
they sing. The picture is painted on a gold background, 
and there is much delicate and beautiful detail. 

No. 18. Madonna and Child with angels (over the door), 
by Giovanni Boccati da Camerino, who became a Perugian 
citizen in 1445, and was the reputed master of Bonfigli. 

No. 19. A large altar-piece by Giovanni Boccati, dated 
1447. Madonna and Child are enthroned in a garden that 
may well be typical of Paradise ; ranked round them are 
childish angels ; to the l., raised on steps, stand the 
two doctors, SS. Ambrose and Jerome ; to the r., SS. Au- 
gustine and Gregory the Great; in the foreground, S. 
Dominic and S. Francis present members of the Confrater- 
nity of S. Dominic. Madonna is the least satisfactory 
element in the picture ; she has neither character nor ex- 
pression, and is like Madonna in No. 18, little more than 
a lay figure. It is difficult to believe that this painter can 
have had any permanent influence on his scholars or on 
the Umbrian painters. 

No. SO. Predella of the above picture, Passion scenes, 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 51 

and at the extremities SS. Thomas Aquinas and Peter 
Martyr. 

No. 24. Madonna and Child with angels, by Giovanni 
Boccati. Madonna has a wonderfully brocaded robe ; 
she is seated under a canopied chair. Note a classical 
bas-relief on the frieze. The angels are of a more virile 
type than in No. 19. In the foreground putti make music 
and pick flowers. 

In the centre of the hall two fifteenth- century caskets, 

Sala VII. — No. 1. Madonna and Child, by Ft a Angelico. 
This panel and the other small panels numbered up to 18 
were originally in the Church of S. Dominic. Of the smaller 
pictures, the Angel of the Annunciation, No. 7, is perhaps 
the most interesting. 

No. 19 (on the end wall). Madonna and Child with saints, 
by Piero delta Frances ca. In the upper part is an Annun- 
ciation ; below, Madonna and Child are enthroned ; to 
the l., SS. John the Baptist and Anthony ; to the r., SS. 
Francis and Elizabeth of Hungary. In the predella, 
figures of SS. Agatha and Chiara, miracles of S. Elizabeth 
and S. Anthony of Padua and S. Francis receiving the 
stigmata. The picture has suffered much and there is 
now no charm of colour ; it is, however, impossible to 
resist the solemn and reverential dignity of the composition 
and the masculine strength which informs the whole, all in 
striking contrast to the more emotional and feminine 
graces of the Umbrian masters. 

No. 20. Madonna and Child with SS. John Baptist and 
Peter, and SS. Jerome and Paul, by Benozzo Gozzoli, dated 
1445. The influence of Fra Angelico is much more clearly 
marked than in the work of Benozzo painted some years 
later at Montefalco. 

No. 21. Madonna and Child, attributed to Benozzo 
Gozzoli. 

No. 22. An immense altar-piece, by Lnca Signorelli : a 
crowded composition, designed in a vigorous style. The 
saints to the l. are SS. Michael, Lawrence, and Francis ; 
to the r., SS. Sebastian, Benedict, and Anthony. On the 



52 PERUGIA 

predella the Vision of Innocent III., the Martyrdom of S. 
Lawrence, view of the castle of Pacciano, SS. Paul and 
Anthony dividing the bread, miracle of S. Anthony. 

Sala VIII. — In this hall we reach the more strictly 
Umbrian part of the gallery. In the previous rooms the 
pictures of the Sienese school in its earlier phases and later 
in the work of Taddeo Bartolo may be regarded as the 
fountain-head of Umbrian art. After that comes the 
stately majesty of Piero della Francesca ; Luca Signorelli, 
with his Florentine love of form ; the craftsman Benozzo, 
who had been the assistant of Fra Angelico, and Boccati. 
All these had their place in the making of Umbrian art, 
which still remained something apart, having a well- 
marked quality of its own. It depended neither on the 
study of nature, nor on the passion of life, nor was it 
ascetic. Its world moved between the poles of romantic 
emotion and artificial convention. This detachment from 
common life lends a peculiar delicacy, an aloofness of 
sentiment, sometimes even a poignancy to emotion and 
to the ideal beauty which inspired the finest work of the 
school. 

This eighth hall is known as that of Bonfigli (1425-1496). 
He is supposed to have been the pupil of Giovanni Boccati 
da Camerino (the painter of Nos. 18 and 19 in Sala VI.). 
Bonfigli is interesting as one of the earliest important 
Perugian painters, and also as being one of the masters of 
Fiorenzo di Lorenzo. He was the genre painter of his 
school ; his triviality, however, is expressed with artificial 
piquancy, and although his convention is childish, its 
prim comeliness has at times an engaging quality — naive 
graciousness has caused much to be forgiven him. 

No. 1. The Adoration of the Magi, by Bonfigli. Madonna 
has the blonde complexion and the inexpressive face usual 
in this master's work. To her r., stands S. John the 
Baptist; to her l., a bishop. The three kings have rich 
garments, elaborately fashioned. The scene is not a 
historical representation ; it is purely ceremonial. Motion 
and gesture is avoided, and in spite of the crowd, the horses, 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 53 

camels, and other incidentals of the journey, the picture 
is essentially a study in still life. The landscape is equally 
formal : a mountainous country is represented by a series 
of unstructural mounds. 

No. 2. Predella of the above panel, the Baptism of 
Christ, the Crucifixion, and a miracle of S. Nicholas. 

No. 5. Madonna and Child,* by Bonfigli. Beneath, 
angels make music on a variety of instruments. This is 
the most popular of the master's works. The delicate 
complexion, the yellow hair, the white veil, are slightly 
relieved against the gold background of the upper part of 
the picture. The type is commonplace and without 
character, but its refinement, its daintiness, its fastidious 
precision save it from insipidity. No other Umbrian 
master has painted such a purely domestic and mundane 
Madonna, a sweetly natured and delicately nurtured 
woman without capacity for a spiritual vocation. 

No. 8. An Annunciation with the symbol of S. Luke, by 
Bonfigli. Madonna is of the same type as in No. 5, but all 
the little delicacies of that picture are petrified. Instead 
of genial graciousness and spontaneity the treatment is 
staccato and formal ; t the figure of the archangel would be 
more suitable as the study for a fashion plate than in 
a work of art. This rendering of the Annunciation is 
remarkable for the introduction of S. Luke with his symbol 
between the angel and Madonna. He sits with a calm, 
detached air, apparently writing down the history of the 
event which he witnesses. The picture comes from the 
College of the Notaries, and this may account for the care- 
ful record which is being made. 

Sala IX. — Hall of Bartolommeo Caporali. 
Bartolommeo Caporali is known as a painter between the 
years 1442 and 1491 ; it has been supposed that he was a 
pupil of Giovanni BoccatL 

No. 1. Gonfalone of S. Bernardino, by Bonfigli, from 
the Church of S. Bernardino. The date is 1465. In the 
lower part of the picture a number of persons put the 
candles, which they have been carrying in procession, into 



54 PERUGIA 

a, basket. S. Bernardino looks on, and in the upper part 
of the picture the divine approval is signified by the pre- 
sence of Christ, attended by the nine choirs of angels. This 
is probably intended to illustrate one of the results of the 
preaching of S. Bernardino in Perugia. The game of 
" stones " was an old-established custom in the town, 
valued as a means of keeping up the hardihood and fighting 
quality of the people. The players were divided into two 
parties and fought, attacking each other with flights of 
stones and other weapons, so that men were left dead after 
the contest. S. Bernardino denounced this warfare, and 
persuaded the people to give their money to buy candles 
and torches to increase the magnificence of the festival of S. 
Ercolano, and otherwise to add to the devotion of the town. 
In this way there was given fifty florins, which the com- 
panies of the " Sasso," the " Maggio," and the " Monte 
Luce ' ' had for the games . On the 24th February, being the 
feast of S. Ercolano, the body of the saint was carried in 
procession, all the " religious " being, as was the custom, 
without candles or torches, while the Priors, the Chamber- 
lains, the treasurers, the stewards, walked with the light of 
torches. When they reached S. Domenico, they left the 
candles and torches with Baglione de Fortera and two 
others, who were the appointed officers for the building and 
repair of the Duomo ; and thus they commemorated the 
saint with a more splendid procession instead of with games 
and dancing. 

Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 9. Panels painted by Bonfigli, 
each with figures of two angels ; some carry baskets of 
roses, others emblems of the Passion. The want of in- 
spiration is peculiarly evident in these fragments where 
two figures alone appear. These demure forms have never 
felt the sensation of wonder ; they ha,ve known no enchant- 
ment ; they have never been moved by celestial raptures ; 
they have never stood in the ranks " of the Militia of 
Paradise." Compare them with the Imperial Presences 
in the transepts of the Upper Church of S. Francesco at 
Assisi. 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 55 

No. 8 (detached fresco, dated 1469). Christ and Ma- 
donna in glory with angels, by Caporali. 

No. 10. Gonf alone of the Annunciation, dated 1466. 
Madonna kneels at her reading-desk ; the angel inclines 
reverently as the message is given. On the lower part of 
the banner there is a group of kneeling people, including 
brethren of the Misericord ia and magistrates. They are 
presented by members of the order of the Servi, which 
had its origin in the special devotion of seven Florentines 
to the service of the Blessed Virgin. The picture has 
been attributed to Niccolo da Foligno. 

No. 15. Madonna and Child, a detached fresco, attri- 
buted to Bonfigli. To the l., SS. Jerome and Dominic 
offering two finely contrasted masses of black and scarlet ; 
to the r., two figures of mendicants are seriously damaged. 
Madonna approaches nearly to the type of No. 5 in Sala 
VIII. The four angels above the frieze are childish and 
self-conscious. 

No. 16. Madonna and Child with angels, and SS. Ber- 
nardino, Francis, Jerome, and Thomas Aquinas, by 
Benedetto Bonfigli. The love of decoration appears in 
the curtain and in the frieze which divides the celestial and 
terrestrial groups. S, Thomas Aquinas has in his hand an 
open book, with an inscription saying that as Thomas has 
written well so he will be rewarded. This reward comes 
to him as illumination from the Sun of Righteousness. 

No. 17 (over entrance door). Two angels, by Bonfigli. 

Nos. 18 and 19. Seated figures in painted terra-cotta. 

Sala X. — Sala di Bernardino di Mariotto. 

Bernardino di Mariotto was painting at the end of the 
fifteenth century. From 1502 to 1521 he lived at S. 
Severino in the Marches ; he is said to have been influ- 
enced by the school of Crivelli. 

No. 1. Bernardino di Mariotto. Madonna and Child 
with SS. Andrea and Giuliano. Madonna is seated under 
a baldachino on a high throne ; around her is a garland of 
flowers. S. Giuliano bears a sword and an olive branch ; 
S. Andrea bears a fish, a symbol at once of his means of 



56 PERUGIA 

living and of his mission. The figure of the latter saint 
indicates an eccentricity of temperament unusual among 
Perugian painters. 

No. 8. Pieta, attributed to Fiorenzo di Lorenzo ; much 
damaged. 

No. 6. The Marriage of S. Catherine. This is less un- 
pleasant than the other large pictures by Bernardino di 
Mariotto. 

No. 3. The Virgin with the Child Christ and the little 
S. John, by Bernardino di Mariotto. Madonna is seated on 
a high throne under a baldachino. In the foreground, SS. 
Benedict and Francis, representing the old and* the new 
forms of the Monastic ideal. There is the same eccen- 
tricity and lack of spontaneous vitality in these two figures 
as in the S. Andrea of No. i. 

No. 9 (over the door). Madonna and Child with S. 
Dominic and a Dominican nun. 

No. 10 (on the window wall). Madonna della Miseri- 
cordia, by an unknown painter. 

No. 14. Painted glass of the fourteenth century ; the 
Crucifixion. 

No. 13. The Nativity, a fresco by the school of Fiorenzo 
di Lorenzo. 

On the end wall. 

No. 10. Madonna and Child ; the Mystic Marriage of 
S. Catherine ; S. Nicholas to the l. A design of great 
simplicity and dignity but not fused into an organic whole ; 
each figure suggests a separate thought. There is solidity 
and vigour together with a harmonious reserve unusual 
in any of the earlier Perugian painting. S. Catherine is 
at once beautiful and free from any effeminacy. The 
picture is attributed to Fiorenzo di Lorenzo. 

Sala XI. — Contains a number of sixteenth-century 
frescoes removed from the house of the Pontani family 
demolished in 1845. 

Sala XII. — Hall of Fiorenzo di Lorenzo. 

In the work of this painter we pass from the feeble 
prettiness of Bonfigli to an art of stronger character. The 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 57 

men and women have force and articulation of frame ; 
their obtuse and rather heavy faces are not, it is true, 
beautiful, but they bespeak character. The sense of colour 
is undeveloped, and it would be useless to pretend that the 
work of Fiorenzo, as we see it in this gallery, represents any 
high standard of genius. His pictures are nevertheless the 
work of a man of sound parts and of some capacity, and as 
the supposed master of Perugino (1446-1524) he demands 
careful attention. 

No. 1. An important picture painted on a gold back- 
ground, by Fiorenzo di Lorenzo. Madonna and Child 
with SS. Peter and Benedict, S. John the Evangelist, 
and a mendicant ; many figures in the cusps and pilasters, 
the Father Eternal, the Annunciation, the four doctors, 
etc. Note that Madonna has none of the pretty graces of 
Bonfigli, and that S. Peter is a fine example of hieratic 
assumption. It is, however, the mendicant to the spec- 
tator's r. that seems really to have liberated the pow r er 
of Fiorenzo ; the figure might have satisfied the heart of 
S. Francis, uniting as it does strong character, direct pur- 
pose, and firmness, with spiritual elevation. 

No. 2. Triptych, attributed to Fiorenzo di Lorenzo. 
Madonna and Child in the centre ; SS. Bernardino and 
Sebastian at the sides. 

No. 3. A tondo attributed to Fiorenzo di Lorenzo. 
Madonna and Child with SS. John Baptist, Joseph, and 
another saint. 

No. 4. The Nativity, by Fiorenzo di Lorenzo. Madonna 
is a charming figure, full of simple wonder. The babe is 
lying on the ground in fifteenth - century fashion. S. 
Joseph is made to take a prominent position, he is indeed 
the central figure ; his robe is of a raw yellow colour, dis- 
tinctly inharmonious, while his expression has a curious 
mixture of self-righteousness and that form of humility 
which is apt to strike an onlooker as spiritual pride. The 
group of kneeling shepherds to the l. is good. The angels 
who hail the event are charming, and recall Florentine 
tradition ; they fill the space of the stable, which Perugino 



58 PERUGIA 

leaves open that we may see his lovely distances. The 
landscape here is strangely constructed , upright rocks 
bear small tablelands on which shepherds tend their 
flocks ; it adds neither grace nor beauty to the picture. 

No. 5. Predella * belonging to the above picture. 
Seven small three-quarter-length figures. To the R., 
S. Michael has the confident air of a conqueror, while S. 
Bernardino is lean, worn, and disillusioned, and S. Louis of 
Toulouse still has the cheerful confidence of youth. To 
the L., S. Jerome is a conscious and hard-working penitent. 
In the centre is S. Francis, clearly envisaged, but not as the 
joyful songster. These little paintings have an intensity 
rather unusual in Umbrian painting. 

No. 6. Adoration of the Magi, an important picture, 
attributed to Fiorenzo di Lorenzo. Madonna is the prin- 
cipal element in the design, a dignified figure seen in 
profile ; her face is clearly defined, simple and gracious, 
in contrast to the blunt, undistinguished, but often charm- 
ingly unaffected faces that Fiorenzo usually paints. 
The group of kings and attendants as yet shows little of 
the breadth and spaciousness of design that characterised 
later painters of the school. 

No. 7 (over the door into Sala XIII.). A tondo, Madonna 
and Child. 

No. 19. Coronation of the Virgin, by Perugino, from the 
Church of S. Francesco al Monte. The attendant angels 
bear festoons of flowers and float gracefully in the Em- 
pyrean. The apostles who are the earthly witnesses are 
moved by no spirit of exaltation ; they are broken up into 
groups, and between there is a glimpse of distant land- 
scape. The picture is dated in 1502. 

No. 20. S. Sebastian, attributed to Fiorenzo di Lorenzo. 

No. 21. Madonna and Child,* attributed to Fiorenzo di 
Lorenzo. To the l., SS. Peter and Francis; to the r., SS, 
Andrew and Mustiola. Note the small figures in the pre- 
della, and particularly the tense figure of S. John with 
deeply marked features ; the clearly-cut detail suggests- 
some reminiscences of metal working and the treatment 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 59 

generally recalls the school of Mantegna. The bright 
eager face of S. Bonaventura sees the brilliant vision, of 
which he preached to his hearers. Notice the gracious 
presence of Sta. Mustiola, who stands at the l. of the 
picture. She is the patroness of Chiusi, and was martyred 
under Aurelian. 

No. 22. S. Anthony Abbot, attributed to Fiorenzo di 
Lorenzo. 

No. 25. Pieta, with SS. Mary Magdalen and Jerome, 
attributed to Fiorenzo di Lorenzo. In the centre of the 
room embroidered stoles, maniples, and mitres. 

Sala XIII. — No. 1. A niche originally in the sacristy of 
S. Francesco al Prato. At the sides, SS. Peter and Paul ; 
within the niche, Madonna and Child with angels. Note 
the flowing draperies and fluttering ribbons of the latter. 
In the predella, SS. Louis, Bernardino, Francis, and Erco- 
lano. Signed by Fiorenzo Lorenzo in 1482. 

Nos. 2-9. Eight panels originally in the sacristy of S. 
Francesco al Prato. The pictures set forth the benefi- 
cence and the miraculous power of S. Bernardino. 2. 
Child injured by a bull. 3. A youth injured by armed 
men. 4. Healing of a man with a broken head. 5. 
Healing of a blind man. 6. Miracle for the benefit of a 
prisoner. 7. Healing of one injured by a fall. 8. Heal- 
ing of one possessed. 9. A woman cured of barrenness. 

Sala XIV.— Hall of Perugino. 

[Perugino had two gifts which separate him to some 
extent from his more ordinary Umbrian contemporaries. 
He saw things in fine spatial relation, and he saw men and 
women as they were moved by the inner life of the soul. 

The gift of seeing things in space seldom forsook him. 
His spaciousness of vision is not merely the result of ex- 
treme simplification in design, as in the Crucifixion at S. 
Maria Maddalena dei Pazzi in Florence, or in the martyr- 
dom of S. Sebastian at Panicale ; the crowd in the " Giv- 
ing of the Keys " in the Sistine Chapel, and the gathering 
of the disciples in the " Entombment " at the Pitti, are 
just as freely placed in the illimitable as the single figure 



6o PERUGIA 

on the cross. Perugino's spaciousness is the chief source 
of the charm we find in his landscapes. His imagination 
freely responds to the beauty of his native country ; its 
noble valleys, wide uplands, serene atmosphere, brilliant 
colouring, in his hands arouse in us the sense of some 
earthly paradise steeped in everlasting harmonies, stretch- 
ing far beyond time and space. 

The other gift that distinguished Perugino, the imagina- 
tive grasp of the inner life of the soul, was less sure. The 
inner life which his imagination saw was of a negative 
kind, yet he has expressed its peculiar character with dis- 
tinction. His imagination unencumbered by subtleties 
saw things directly. He gave form to his visions in figures 
that might have been commonplace but for the gravity 
of his artifice. His unpretending manner gives character ; 
his genius thus reaches an expression of quickening 
emotion. 

Perugino's imagination was nurtured in an enclosed 
garden ; in this atmosphere of reticent tenderness, with- 
drawn from the perplexities of life, he found the secret of 
a devout beauty, passively acquiescent in its aloofness. 
Perugino was a master in the art of painting the moods 
proper to a naturally devout people. When these moods 
pass to us through his imagination, we have pictures of 
refined and delicate beauty ; when the mood arouses no 
corresponding emotion in the painter his art becomes 
a ritual. The Umbrian temper was essentially romantic. 
Perugino is apt to merge it in an academic formula. His 
urbane habit distrusted enthusiasm : his saints are sensi- 
tive without asceticism ; their longing is without passion ; 
their mystical feeling has none of the enchantment of the 
unknowable. He eschews rhetoric, he is not heroic, he is 
ruffied by no apocalyptic vision, he never offends by arro- 
gance or the arts of self-advertisement. His imagination 
works in silence ; his simple ecstasy leads to no profound 
emotion, but it lies beyond the bounds of any vulgar 
standard. He sometimes rises to great heights, occasion- 
ally students of his art are puzzled by his lapses. The 




Photograph : Mansell 

THE ANGEL AND TOBIT 

By Perugino. In the National Gallery' 

Compare with the work of Perugino in the Gallery at Perugia 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 61 

somewhat negative tendency of his genius and his lack of 
close contact with life probably rendered him peculiarly 
liable to fall into uninspired convention. With all his 
defects and limitations, however, he has added a great 
sum of beauty to the possession of mankind; and the 
traveller will often find his eyes wandering from the work 
of greater masters to the charming colour and the lovely 
landscapes which recall the shores of Lake Trasimeno and 
the sunlit valleys of the Apennines.] 

Pietro Vannucci, known as Perugino, was born at Citta 
della Pieve, a small hill-set town near the railway that runs 
between Chiusi and Orvieto. He came to Perugia to 
learn the art of painting, and became the pupil of Fiorenzo 
di Lorenzo. Besides his own ability as a painter Perugino 
owes his fame to the fact that in his shop Raphael worked as 
a youth. With the possible exception of the frescoes in 
the Sala del Cambio, there is now none of Perugino's best 
work in Perugia ; nevertheless, there are a number of 
fairly characteristic examples in the picture gallery, and 
of these the following should be noticed :— 

The Coronation of the Virgin, Sala XII. 19. The Bap- 
tism, 9 ; the Nativity , 18; the Crucifixion, 22 ; in Sala XIV. 
Madonna and Child, 2, Sala XV. The Transfiguration, 
S, and Madonna and Child with Saints, 7, in Sala XVII. 
The Nativity, 33, Sala XVIII. 

No. 1. S. Giacomo della Marca. 

No. 2. S. Sebastian, by Perugino, dated 1518. 

No. 5. The Father Eternal surrounded by a heavy 
aureole with seraph heads, by Perugino. 

Nos. 9 (the Baptism of Christ) and 18 (the Nativity) 
formed part of an altar-piece painted by Perugino for the 
Church of S. Agostino. These two large panels are curi- 
ously insipid. The figures are enfeebled and purposeless ; 
it needs painful effort to keep hold of any sense of vitality. 
The landscape has a wasted air, as if it might be the setting 
to some temple in which life is lost in oblivion. We may 
note Umbrian limitation in the rendering of the nude, also 
the static condition of the design, nothing moves. Even 



62 PERUGIA 

the dove of the Holy Spirit, which usually sweeps down 
on the scene with something of power, is here set in a 
mechanically formed halo, able to do nothing more than 
spread its wings within its narrow bounds. The Baptist, 
though he may be in harmony with the rest of the picture, 
is scarcely the preacher of repentance, the forerunner and 
martyr. There is a painful air of vacuous self-conscious- 
ness about the whole picture. 

The picture of the Nativity, No. 18, delicate in all its 
qualities, and with an air of grace and refinement, attains 
within its own limitations a certain success, but the 
limitations are narrow and the conventions of the picture 
react upon the slighter and less permanent of human 
emotions. 

No. 22. The Crucifixion ; was painted originally on the 
other side of the panel, No. 19 in Sala XII., the Coronation 
of the Virgin. The figure of Christ, modelled in wood, 
hangs on a wooden cross, and for this sculpture Perugino 
painted a background. Madonna and S. John stand at the 
sides of the cross, S. Mary Magdalene and S. Francis kneel 
in the foreground. Two angels float in the air and catch 
the blood that drops from the hands. The physical mani- 
festations at the time of the Crucifixion are indicated by a 
shining sun to the left and a darkened one to the right. 
Madonna wears an air of pensive and resigned melancholy. 
S. John displays a type of feminine weakness unusual even 
for Perugino. Penitence and Humility are but poorly 
represented in the Magdalene and S. Francis. It cannot 
be said that the result justifies this combination of sculp- 
ture and painting. 

Sala XV. — No. 1. S. Jerome as a Penitent, by Perugino. 

No. 2. Madonna and Child with two angels in adoration 
floating in the sky. In the background are the kneeling 
members of a confraternity. Madonna is crowned as 
Queen of Heaven, but neither mother nor child are 
nimbed. We see how well the Perugian painters were 
able to interpret the simple feeling of Umbrian life : the 
meditative piety of those who had learned each to dwell 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 63 

with himself; the somewhat negative spirituality of people 
who observe their duty rather than feel its sanction. No 
one^ however^ can miss the charm of the mild sentiment 
and the rich colour. The work of Perugino in 1497. 

No. 3. S. John Baptist with SS. Antony of Padua and 
Sebastian; and SS. Jerome and Francis ; by Perugtno. 

No. 5. SS. Mary Magdalen and Jerome; by Perugtno. 

Sala XVI. — Nos. 1 and 2. Small panels from the church 
of the Monastery at Monteluce; by Berto di Giovanni. 

No. 6. S. Peter Martyr; from the Monastery of Colombo, 
dated 1505. School of Perugino. 

No. 7. The Blessed Colombo; from the same monastery; 
dated 1510. 

No. 13. Madonna and Child with S. James and S. Francis , 
originally in the sacristy of S. Francesco al Monte. Attri- 
buted to Giannicola Manni. 

No. 14. S. John writing the Apocalypse 5 an unhappy 
design. 

No. 16. Coronation of the Virgin; dated 1517, attributed 
to Berto di Giovanni, originally in S. Agnese. 

No. 30. L'Ognissanti. In the upper part Christ is 
seated with Madonna and S. John Baptist in adoration. 
Below are seven saints; S. Peter in centre with SS. Jerome, 
Paul; S. Sebastian; Peter Martyr Stephen; Chiara ; and 
Magdalen; painted by Giannicola Manni in 1507. Ori- 
ginally in the Church of S. Domenico. The landscape is 
lovely; and the colour of the whole is harmonious and 
pleasant. 

No. 31. Madonna and S. John; by Giannicola Manni. 

No. 32. Crucifixion; by Perugino. 

No. 33. The Father Eternal; attributed to Giannicola 
Manni. 

Sala XVII.— Hall of Bernardino di Betto (Pinturicchio). 

[Before dealing with the followers of Perugino we must 
consider an example of the work of Pinturicchio (1454- 
1513); who may be regarded as an equal rather than as a 
scholar or follower. Pinturicchio had an independent and 
individual standpoint; which he maintained to the end in 



6 4 PERUGIA 

spite of the influences surrounding him in Rome and Siena, 
where he spent a large part of his* life.] 

No. 1. A large altar-piece painted in 1495. The picture 
is pleasing in colour, and the Angel of the Annunciation is 
a beautiful figure with a fine sense of arrested motion ; 
otherwise the interest is mainly in the ideas which are set 
forth. The redemption of man is the theme. This is 
rendered possible by the Incarnation : and the history of 
this event is detailed in its beginning, in the Annunciation ; 
in its manifestation, in the Child who sits on His mother's 
knee ; in its completion, in the sacrifice foreshadowed by 
the cross which the child Baptist gives to the child Christ ; 
and in its fruition, in the Resurrection from the tomb. 
Over the whole is the dove of the Holy Spirit. The note 
of the picture is struck in the inscription, which may be 
rendered : " Look, mortal, by whose blood thou art 
redeemed. So act, that it may not have flowed in vain." 
In the other parts of the picture we see how man is taught 
to act rightly. In small circles at the base of the picture 
are the four Evangelists, who record the Gospel, so that 
all may know the good tidings. Beneath the figures of the 
Angel and Madonna in Annunciation stand two Doctors, 
SS. Jerome and Augustine, the translator of Scripture and 
the greatest teacher of the Latin Church. 

Humility and Penitence are necessary conditions of the 
mind, if the teaching of Scripture and of the Fathers is to 
have its way. So in two small pictures at the bottom of the 
picture these states are impressed on us. S. Augustine re- 
ceives a lesson of humility from the child who is trying to 
empty the sea into the hole he has made in the sand — the 
great bishop perceives that he may as well hope to fathom 
the mystery of the Trinity ; while in another picture S. 
Jerome is seen in the wilderness beating his breast before 
a crucifix in an agony of remorse and penitence. 

Nos. 3 and 4. S. Augustine with four followers and S.' 
Jerome ± by Pinturicchio . 

No. 5. The Transfiguration, by Perugino. Christ is 
clothed in white and surrounded by an aureole. The 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 65 

landscape is an example of Perugino's imaginative treat- 
ment of space. The feathery trees, the blue waters of the 
distant lake, the delicate tones of the gently moulded hills, 
the gradation of the limpid atmosphere make a harmoni- 
ous and direct appeal. The conception of the Christ is 
weak and poor, the witnesses of the mystery are uninterest- 
ing, and the detail of the mandorla, with its trifling cherub 
heads, causes us to marvel how such a thing could be 
imagined by anyone with a sense of artistic fitness. 

No. 7. Madonna and Child with SS. Nicholas and Ber- 
nardino of Siena. 

No. 9. Madonna and Child in the clouds attended by 
angels ; beneath kneel SS. Francesco and Bernardino 
and in the distance a crowd of worshippers. Both 
these pictures are by Perugino ; they lack the limpid 
transparency, the richness of colour, and the spacious- 
ness on which so much depends in this master's 
painting. 

The easel pictures of the scholars of Perugino may be 
more conveniently studied and compared in this gallery 
than elsewhere. The principal followers were Eusebio di 
S. Giorgio (1462- 1554), Lo Spagna (Giovanni Spagna, 
working 15 16-1532 ?), Sinibaldo Ibi (still living in 1558), 
Giannicola Manni (died 1544), Domenico Alfani (1483-. 
x 553 ?)> Bernardino di Mario tto (end of the fifteenth 
century), 

No. 10. Madonna and Child, by Eusebio di S. Giorgio, 
dated 1509, from the Church of S. Agostino. 

No. 11. The Father Eternal in blessing. Supposed to 
be part of the Deposition by Raphael, now in the Borghese 
gallery at Rome. 

No. 12. Adoration of the Magi, originally in the Church 
of S. Agostino and dated 1505 ; usually attributed to 
Eusebio di S. Giorgio, although some recent critics have 
ascribed the picture to Raphael. 

No. 14. Madonna and Child, supposed to have possibly 
been a sketch by Raphael for the Madonna di Casa della 
Staff a. 



66 PERUGIA 

No. 15. Madonna and Child, by Eusebio di S. Giorgio. 
The lighting of the picture is good, and the contrast 
between the red robe of S. John and the black robe of S. 
Benedict is fine. The tradition of Perugian landscape is 
already falling away into formalism. 

No. 16. S. Anthony between SS. Francis and Bernardino, 
by Eusebio di S. Giorgio, from the Church of S. Francesco 
al Prato. A very inferior picture. 

No. 17. Madonna and Child, a fresco by Giovanni 
Spagna. 

No. 19. Madonna enthroned with the Child, attributed 
to Spagna. To the r., SS. Anthony and Jerome ; to the l., 
S. Francis and S. John the Baptist. The latter has 
wandered far from the desert. He appears as a rather 
over-refined man of the world. S. Francis, also, is no 
Apostle of Poverty. If, however, we forget all about such 
things and regard the pictures as a charming study of 
colour set in a beautiful landscape, it has undeniable 
quality, and it places the master as one of the most 
successful of the followers of Perugino. 

No. 18, by Lo Spagna, represents the Father Eternal 
bearing the globe of the world and surrounded by insignifi- 
cant angels. It is a poor picture, and serves to remind us 
of the inequality of this master's work. 

Sala XVIII. — On the window wall. No. 13. Madonna 
della Misericordia with devotees under her mantle. 

No. 16. Adoration of the Magi, by Domenico Alfani. 
This artist shows the influence of Raphael rather than that 
of Perugino, and also illustrates the incapacity of most of 
the followers of these two masters. 

No. 17. The Deposition, by Cristoforo Gherardi. 

No. 18. The Crucifixion, a fresco of 1523. Inferior work 
attributed to Pompeo Cocchi. 

No. 19. Domenico Alfani. Madonna with angels about 
to place a crown upon her head. The Child turns to- 
wards S. Peter, who stands on the l. ; S. Paul is on the 
r. S. Nicholas with three bags of money, and Sta. 
Lucia with two eyes on a dish, kneel in front. 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 67 

No. 22. The Annunciation, a mannered and futile work, 
by Sinibaldo Ibi. 

No. 26. The Nativity, by Domenico Aljani. 

No. 27. Madonna and Child with saints, by Sinibaldo 
Ibi. 

No. 31. A detached fresco from San Francesco al 
Monte, is attributed to Lo Spagna or Eusebio di S. Giorgio. 
It represents S. Francis receiving the stigmata. The wild 
desert of La Verna becomes a smiling valley with a summer 
•sea in the distance. Nevertheless the artist makes some 
attempt in the figure of S. Francis to grapple with the 
struggle of the soul. 

No. 28. Madonna and Child with saints, by Domenico 
Aljani, showing the influence of Raphael at the time he 
was affected by Fra Bartolommeo. 

No. 29. Madonna and Child with SS. Sebastian and 
Augustine, dated 1509. A futile work attributed to 
Berto di Giovanni and Sinibaldo Ibi. 

No. 30. Madonna and Child enthroned in a niche, an 
example of the trifling affectations of the work of Sinibaldo 
Ibi. 

No. 33. The Nativity, by Perugino. A detached fresco. 
It comes from the Church of S. Francesco al Monte. This 
is supposed to have been one of his latest works. It is 
graceful and refined ; there is a tender sense of devout 
adoration in the kneeling figures, interfered with by no 
obtrusive or indifferent detail. Madonna and the shepherd 
next to her are examples of the Umbrian school at its best. 
It shows that Perugino had not lost his power of creating 
beautiful pictures even in the latest years of a long life. 
This fresco is fortunately placed here as a standard for 
assessing the work of the scholars. 

No. 37. A copy of Raphael's Deposition, by Orazio 
Aljani. 

No. 38. By Domenico Aljani. Holy Family, Madonna 
and Child and John the Baptist, with SS. Joachim and 
Joseph and S. Anne. This picture is said to have been 
designed by Raphael. The pomegranate is a symbol of the 



68 PERUGIA 

fruitfulness of the new life, which had appeared in the 
world. 

No. 39. Madonna and Child, by Domenico Alfani, dated 
1508. ' 

No. 40. Pieta, from S. Francesco al Prato. 

No. 44. The Risen Christ, by Gianni cola Manni. 

Sala XIX. — No. 1. S. Galgano strikes his Sword into a 
Rock, by Orazio Alfani. 

No. 6. A large and vulgar picture, by Domenico Alfani, 
dated 1532. Madonna and Child with SS. John Baptist 
and Giuliana. 

No. 8. Madonna and Child with SS. Francis and 
Anthony. 

No. 11. Crucifixion with SS. Jerome and Appollonia, by 
Domenico Alfani, from the Church of S. Francesco al 
Prato. 

Sala XX. — No. 8. Copy of Raphael's Deposition, by 
Sassoferrato. 

No. 9. Copy of Raphael's Madonna della Seggiola, by 
Sassoferrato. 

No. 12. Head of Madonna, by Sassoferrato. 

Pastels attributed to Barocci, Nos. 19-23. 

Sala XXI. — No. 11. Christ among the Doctors, by 
Orazio Alfani. 

On a screen a bas-relief of the Flagellation, by Vincenzo 
Danti. 

On the same floor, opposite to the Picture Gallery, is the 
Library. (Biblioteca, and Archivio Antico.) 

Hall of the Library 

1st desk. Life of S. Francesco. Indulgence granted by 
Benedict XL Large Bible with bold miniatures of the 
seven days of creation, supposed to be of the eleventh 
century. A fifteenth-century copy of Virgil, j M 

2nd desk. Various statutes, etc., of the Arts, p p, ! 

yd desk. Cicero's " Epistles " (Sweynheim^and Pan- 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 69 

narts, 1467). S. Augustine's " City of God " (Sweynheim 
and Pannarts, 1468). 

" City of God " — Venice (Vindelinus de Spira, 1470). 
Livy (Milan, Antonius Zarotus, 1480, etc.). 

The 4th and $th desks have on them sundry fine bindings 
and interesting illustrations. 

On the 7 th desk there is a collection of choral books. 

The Hall of the Cambio 

(In the Corso Vannucci. Open from 9 to 12.30, and 
from 2.30 to 5. Entrance, 50 centimes.) 

[The hall of the Cambio and the chapel attached to it 
belonged to the guild of the money-changers and bankers. 
The hall was used for the general purposes of the body, 
and specially for the trying of causes arising among its 
members ; hence the name given to it — the Udienza. The 
chapel was used for celebrating the religious festivals which 
concerned the guild. 

The guilds or colleges of the various trades and arts 
formed a most important item in the life of the Middle Ages. 
They were founded on ancient Roman custom, and they 
formed rallying-points for Latin civilisation in its contest 
with the barbarian invaders of Italy. Citizens and traders 
could only defend themselves against the descendants of 
Lombard and Frankish landowners by combination, and 
this took the form of guilds or arts. These became political, 
and where they were rich, as in Florence, they were the 
virtual rulers of the commonwealth. The full rights of 
citizenship could only be exercised through membership 
in one of them, and it was common for nobles to register 
themselves as members of one or other of the arts so that 
they might gain political influence ; indeed, so completely 
were ancient forms perverted, that in 1674 the colleges of 
the mercanzia (or merchants) and the Cambio only en- 
rolled members of the noble class. 

The " art " of the Cambio is mentioned in 1259, when its 
consuls took part as witnesses to a contract for the estab- 



70 PERUGIA 

lishment of a new mint. The first existing statutes of the 
college are dated in 1377. 

The guild of the money-changers was one of the most 
important in the town ; its members were officially con- 
cerned in such public functions as the oversight of the 
building of the Duomo and in the victualling of the city. 

In 1428 Pope Martin V. was asked to grant leave for the 
building of a new hall. His permission was necessary, 
as the proposed site was occupied by the Church of S. 
Giovanni del Mercato. It was not, however, until 1441 
that matters were arranged, and the building was not 
actually begun till 1452. 

Perugino began painting in the hall in 1499, and he is 
supposed to have finished in 1500, though the receipt for 
payment was not given until 1507. The paintings in the 
chapel are generally assigned to the years 1515-1519. 

The design of the frescoes in the Sala del Cambio has 
been attributed to the humanist, Francesco Maturanzio, 
who was invited to Perugia in 1497. He taught in the 
town, and acted as secretary to the Priors up to the time 
of his death in 15 18. Among the books left by him to the 
city was one containing the inscriptions which appear on 
the walls, entitled, In Audentia Cambia Perusiae ; the 
same book included the " Offices " of Cicero ornamented 
with fourteenth-century miniatures. The fourth of these 
pictures showed the four cardinal virtues which are the 
four fountains of " Honestum," and they were illustrated 
by men famous for the practice of each particular virtue. 
Prudence is associated with Fabius Maximus ; Justice, 
with a Roman emperor and a French king ; Fortitude, 
with Hannibal and Mutius Scsevola holding his hand in 
the flames ; while Temperance has Fabius Maximus and 
Plato. 

In the hall of the Cambio the arrangement is not identi- 
cal, but it follows the same train of thought. Another 
example of a similar kind is found in one of the rooms 
in the Palazzo Pubblico at Siena, where a like connection 
between the moral virtues and ancient heroes is illustrated. 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 71 

The frescoes of the Sala del Cambio are interesting not 
only as being important works of Perugino and his scholars , 
but as embodying the ideas of the time on some of the 




most subtle and mysterious relations of humanity. They 
are not in any way peculiar in this respect, for art, from 
the time of the Catacombs, had been the medium of ex- 
pression used by thinkers to make their conclusions popu- 



72 PERUGIA 

larly known. Such schemes of religious and philosophical 
thought were painted or carved not only in churches, they 
were common on secular monuments, as, for instance, on 
the fourteenth-century capitals of the ducal palace of 
Venice and in the sixteenth-century frescoes painted by 
Raphael in the halls of the palace at the Vatican. 

The hall is entered from the main street. It is badly 
lighted, so that a sunny forenoon should be chosen for a 
visit.] 

As we enter, two pictures face us 1 — (i) The Nativity ; 
(2) The Transfiguration. They strike the key-note of the 
whole design. The problem to be solved was how the 
finite and transitory nature of man can be transformed 
into the infinite and perfect — how humanity can become 
again united to God. 

The answer given was that Christ, by sharing in mortal- 
ity, enables man to share in Divinity. This was the teach- 
ing of the mystery of the " Nativity," in which the finite 
is included in the infinite. The mystery of the " Trans- 
figuration " completes the idea ; it suggests that as Christ 
in His human condition reassumed the Divine, so man, in 
virtue of the mystery of the " Incarnation," has the same 
goal. 

The object of the paintings on the two side walls and the 
roof is to show how all the capacities of man and the history 
of humanity prepare the way for the manifestation of the 
Infinite and for the ultimate perfection of the race. On the 
right wall God reveals His will directly to the chosen 
people through the Prophets and Sibyls. On the left wall 
there is an epitome of the ancient life of Greece and Rome, 
showing how Pagan civilisation became by the light of the 
Cardinal Virtues an instrument of the Divine Will. On 
the roof the figures of the Seven Gods and Goddesses direct 
us to the perfection of the rational powers of the soul. If 
we regard the revelation from the Father Eternal to the 
chosen people as developing the love of God in mankind, 

1 See Plan I., p. 71. 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 73 

and the Moral Virtues of pagan life as the source of man's 
love of his neighbour, we have these united with a cultiva- 
tion of the intellectual faculties ; so that in the full exercise 
of the whole range of the powers of the soul man may 
become fitted to receive the manifestation of the Infinite, 
and be prepared once more to enter into communion with 
the Divine. 

We begin the examination of the pictures on the side 
walls with those on the left hand : 

Prudence (3), with a beautiful four-sided mirror and a 
serpent twined round the handle. The inscription is — 

" Quid generi humano praestas, dea, die age. Praesto 
Ne facias quae mox facta dole re queas. 
Scrutari verum doceo, causasque latentes, 
Et per me poterit nil nisi rite gen." 

' Say, oh goddess ! what hast thou to offer to the human 

race, 
That thou shalt do naught for which thou oughtest to 

grieve as soon as done ? 
' I teach how to search out the Truth and hidden Right, 
And through me nothing can be done except fitly.' ' 

Below Prudence stand three figures — 

(5) Fabius Maximus, the general, who by his prudence 
foiled the Carthaginians, subsequent to their victory at 
Lake Trasimeno in the Second Punic War. 

(6) Socrates, the philosopher, who laid the foundation 
for the theory of civil and moral virtue, the father of 
Greek wisdom, the perfection of Prudence in its widest 
aspect. 

(7) Numa Pompilius, the legendary founder of the insti- 
tutions of the Roman state. 

Next to Prudence sits (4) Justice, with the attributes of 
the sword and scales. Her inscription is — 

" Si tribus his cunctos similes pia numina gignant, 
Nil toto sceleris, nil sit in orbe mali. 
Me culta, augentur populi belloque togaque : 
Et sine me, fuerant quae modo magna ruunt." 



74 PERUGIA 

" If the benignant gods were to bring forth all men like unto 

these, 
In the whole world there would be naught of guilt nor of evil. 
When I am observed nations wax great, both in war and in 

peace, 
And without me that which has been mighty falls into ruin." 

Below Justice stand the figures — 

(8) Furius CamiUus, the conqueror of Veii, and five 
times Dictator. A schoolmaster of Falerii who had offered 
to betray his town to Camillus, was sent back in chains, 
and his fellow-citizens, in admiration of the justice of the 
Romans, surrendered to him. 

(9) Pittacus, ruled Mytilene for ten years, and when 
order was restored and established by his good govern- 
ment, he voluntarily resigned. 

(10) Trajan, who heard the prayer of the widow. A 
falcon belonging to the son of the Emperor killed a fowl 
belonging to the widow ; her son strangled the falcon and 
was killed by the Prince. At the prayer of the widow 
Trajan heard her cause, and ordained that the Prince, his 
son, should die, or become as a son to the widow. 

The next Virtue is Fortitude (n). She has a shield 
and mace. The inscription is — 

" Cedere cuncta meis pulsa et disjecta lacertis 
Magna satis fuerint tres documenta viri. 
Nil ego pro patria timeo, charisque propinquis ; 
Quaeque alios terret, mors mihi grata venit." 

" Three men are mighty proofs enough, that all things yield, 
driven back, and cast down by my arms. I fear nothing for 
fatherland, nor for dear kindred, and Death that frightens 
others to me is welcome." 

Under Fortitude stand — 

(13) L. Sicinius Dentatus, a Roman who is said to have 
fought 120 battles, and to have had the scars of forty-five 
wounds on the front of his body. 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 1s 

(14) Leonidas, the King of Sparta, who defended the 
pass of Thermopylae against the Persians. 

(15) Horatius Codes, the defender of Rome against the 
Etruscan army under Porsenna. By his defence of the 
bridge across the Tiber, time was gained to destroy it, and 
so the city was saved. 

The last of the Virtues is Temperance (12). She mixes 
water with wine. The inscription is — 

" Die, dea, quae tibi vis ? Mores rego pectoris aestus 
Tempero ; et his alios, cum volo, reddo pares. 
Me sequere, et qua te superes ratione docebo. 
Quid te quod valeas vincere majus erit ? " 

" ' Tell me, Goddess, what would you have ? ' 'I govern 
character. I temper the passions of the heart. And when I 
will I make others like unto these. Follow me and I will 
teach thee in what fashion thou canst overcome thyself. 
What can be greater than to have power thyself to conquer ? ' ' 

Under Temperance stand — 

(16) Publius Scipio, the conqueror of Spain and Car- 
thage, who refused the office of Consul and Dictator for 
life which the people offered him. 

(17) Pericles, the Athenian statesman, who died without 
having had any personal gain from the state. 

(18) Cincinnatus, who was appointed Dictator and taken 
from the plough, and after his term of office laid it down of 
his own accord. 

These philosophers and heroes of ancient Greece and 
Rome ranged under the moral virtues, make for us a mag- 
nificent synthesis of Pagan life, justifying the saying of 
Dante that " it must be evident, when we recall the lives of 
these and other divine citizens, that they could not have 
wrought so many wonderful deeds had not some light of 
the Divine Goodness been added to their own goodness of 
nature." 

The light of the Divine Goodness is, according to the 
design of these pictures, that of the Moral Virtues, and 
out of this grew the Roman Empire, founded not on force, 



76 PERUGIA 

but on Divine Reason. The great men of classical life were 
instruments wherein many a time the arm of God was seen 
to be present. This was made most clear when the earth 
was prepared for the birth of Christ by the universal peace 
which reigned in the world as the result of the power of 
the Roman Emperor. Christ chose to be born at a time 
when the ship of human fellowship was speeding to the due 
port. 

Thus the great men of Pagan times,, on whose goodness 
was founded the Roman Empire, were preparing the world 
for the coming of Christ, though they lived only in the 
twilight of the moral virtues. 

Turning now to the wall on the right-hand side of the 
hall, the lunette in the bay farthest from the door (19) has 
a representation of the Father Eternal, holding the globe 
of the universe in His hand, and attended by angels. Be- 
low, in the position corresponding to the heroes of Greece 
and Rome, are six Lawgivers, Prophets, and Kings of the 
Hebrews, and six Sibyls — women who were supposed to 
have prophetic powers, and to have foreseen the coming of 
the Messiah. Beginning at the end farthest from the door 
they stand in the following order : — 

(20) Isaiah. (26) Erythrean Sibyl. 

(21) Moses. (27) Persican „ 

(22) Daniel. (28) Cumean „ 

(23) David. (29) Libycan „ 

(24) Jeremiah. (30) Tiburtian ,, 

(25) Solomon. (31) Delphican „ 

To these have been granted a direct inspiration and an 
insight more clear than that of the Pagans into the divine 
purpose. As the Empire of Rome prepared the way politi- 
cally, so these prophets and seers make ready the souls of 
men to receive the message of the new dispensation. 

Thus both the ancient civilisation of Greece and Rome 
and the nation of the Jews were divinely appointed fore- 
runners of the Messiah. 

The connecting link between the classical heroes and 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 77 

the Hebrew prophets is found in Cato, whose figure is 
painted beside the entrance door (not shown in the plan). 
He is to be regarded as the greatest of Pagans, the one who 
by the force of his moral nature approached most nearly to 
the light of the Gospel dispensation. According to Dante, 
Cato, although enjoying only the light of the cardinal 
virtues (Purg. 3 i. 37), is the guardian of the island of Pur- 
gatory ; he receives the souls of the blessed and sets them 
on their way towards the circles of the mountain where 
they are cleansed from sin. He forms an exception to the 
rule that only those who have lived by faith can pass be- 
yond the courts where Dante finds the rest of the virtuous 
heathen. 

The inscription at his feet is as follows : — 

" Quisquis vel celebri facturus verba corona 
Surgis, vel populo reddere jura paras, 
Privatos pone affectus : cui pectora versant 
Aut amor aut odium, recta tenere nequit." 

" Let whosoever risest to utter words possessing the illustrious 

crown, 
Or goest about to render justice to the people, 
Put away all private affections : For he whose heart is 

swayed 
Either by love or hate, may not stand for the right." 

The painting on the roof is decorative in character. 
Seven gods and goddesses appear among scrolls and orna- 
mental designs of unusual delicacy and verve. They are 
attributed to Perugino's pupils working from the master's 
designs. 

Over the pictures of the Nativity and the Transfigura- 
tion is Jupiter (41 ), Sagittarius and Pisces being on the 
wheels of his chariot. Over Fortitude and Temperance is 
Mars (40), with Aries and Cancer. Over Prudence and 
Justice is Mercury (37), with Gemini and Virgo. Over the 
Prophets and Sibyls is Saturn (41 ) ; with Capricorn and 
Aquarius. Over the judgment bench is Venus (38), with 
Taurus and Libra. Over the entrance is Luna (36), with 



78 PERUGIA 

Cancer. Over the centre is Apollo (39), with Leo. These 
symbols must be considered in their relation to the wall 
paintings. 

The earth was thought to be in the centre of the universe 
and round it circled a number of heavens, each impelled 
in its course by one of the choirs of angels. The choirs 
each had their appointed duty in relation to the manifesta- 
tion of some form of the divine will — and in this way the 
movement of each heaven took its part in the divine order 
of the universe. The heavens were associated with the 
sciences in the following way : — 

(36) the heaven of Luna was associated with Grammar. 



(37) 


V 


Mercury „ 


yy 


Dialectic. 


(38) 


)) 


Venus „ 


yy 


Rhetoric. 


(39) 


}> 


Apollo (the Sun) 


yy 


Arithmetic. 


(40) 


>) 


Mars „ 


yy 


Music. 


(41) 


>> 


Jupiter „ 


yy 


Geometry. 


(42) • 


yy 


Saturn „ 


yy 


Astronomy. 



Thus these seven figures of gods and goddesses stand 
for the Trivium and Quadrivium ; that is, for the seven 
sciences, which in mediaeval schemes of education train the 
mind and fit it for the further study of physics, moral philo- 
sophy, and theology (see "Convito," ii. chaps, xiv. and xv.). 
We may therefore regard the paintings on the roof as 
indicating the method by which the divine will, acting 
through the movement of the heavens, enlightens the 
human mind intellectually. 

The bay nearest to the door on the right-hand side is 
occupied by the judgment seat of the college (No. 35). 

Over this bench is a gilded figure of Justice (34) with 
globe and sword, guarded by a Perugian griffin on each 
side (32, ^)- The inscription is — 

" Caelos re go, inferis 
Impero, judico inter 
Mortales, ergo me colet." 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 79 

" I guide the heavens, 
I command hell, 
I judge among mortals, 
Therefore worship me/' 

The intarsiawork throughout the hall is worthy of study ; 
it is of the same period as the painting. 

On the pilaster of the l. wall, between the two bays, 
there is a portrait of Perugino, painted by himself (43). It 
is the face of a strong, self-willed man of determined char- 
acter and of no great refinement. It leaves us wondering 
that such an one should have cared to paint the pasteboard 
heroes over his head. 

The inscription in connection with the portrait runs — 

" Perdita si fuerat, pingendi 
Hie rettulit artem : 
Si nusquam inventa est 
Hactenus, ipse dedit." 

" If the art of painting had been lost, here it would 
have been found. If it had never been invented, he 
would have supplied it." 

Reviewing the monument as a whole we have in the 
pictures of the Nativity and the Transfiguration the 
passage of the Infinite into the Finite and the reassump- 
tion of the Infinite by that which had taken the form of the 
Finite. By the first process it becomes possible for man 
to reach out towards the Divine, and by the second is set 
before us the true aim of man, viz., to join in the com- 
munity of the Infinite. 

The rest of the pictures are devoted to showing how man 
is to be fitted for his final end. The will is rightly directed 
by the practice of the moral virtues and by direct inspira- 
tion from the Father Eternal, and the whole capacities of 
man are duly governed by a reasoning faculty, cultivated 
under the divine influence which is manifested in the Seven 
Liberal Arts. 



8o PERUGIA 

The Nativity is a good example of Perugino's work ; 
a quiet dignity and solemnity pervades the picture. The 
angels singing " Gloria in Excelsis Deo/' the mother in 
placid adoration, the shepherds kneeling with unaffected 
devotion, the beasts of the field resting in their stable, and 
the gracious landscape are all typical of the mystical 
harmony accompanying the union of the human and 
the divine — that mystery which is the object of reverent 
joyfulness to the whole creation. The Transfiguration 
has failed to inspire the painter. There is neither grace in 
the design nor charm in the colour. 

The figures of the Virtues are indifferent examples of the 
women Perugino was accustomed to paint. The Greek and 
Roman heroes arranged under them can only be regarded 
as a travesty of humanism. They have not life enough to 
simulate human beings ; they are not sufficiently informed 
by thought to constitute symbols in more than the name. 
The mincing and trifling air of these unrealities is equally 
removed from grace and from purpose. Cato himself (to 
the r. of the entrance door) is hardly better than the rest ; 
any possible point that there might have been is effectually 
destroyed by the petty toy he wears on his head. 

The prophets and sibyls on the r. wall are rather less 
grotesque than the heroes, but there is the same essential 
want of character, the same lack of artistic capacity, with 
an equal deficiency of intellectual force and feeling. 

In spite of the comparative failure of some of the indi- 
vidual elements in the decoration of this little hall, it is a 
very fine example of what may be done to give character to 
a building. The intarsia of the panellings and the carving 
of the judicial bench combine with the colour on the walls 
and roof, so that the general effect is fine and worthy of 
the study of all who care for the grace and dignity of the 
surroundings of daily life. 

Chapel of the Sala del Cambio. — The chapel is entered 
from the Udienza. The paintings are attributed to Gian- 
nicola Manni (working 1493- 1544), a pupil of Perugino^ 
who is said to have painted under Andrea del Sarto (i486- 




■: •■'.:■: : 



Photograph: Brogi 

FILIPPO SCOLARI 

(By Andrea del Castagno. In S. Appollonia, Florence 

Compare with Perugino's heroes in the Sala del Cambio at Perugia 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 81 

1 531). They are usually dated in the years between 1515 
and 1519. 

The altar-piece has in the centre a Baptism of Christ, 
and at the sides the Archangel Gabriel and Madonna in 
Annunciation. The paintings on the walls are concerned 
with the life of S. John the Baptist. To the l., on the side 
wall, is the Meeting of Mary and Elizabeth, and on the side 
wall to the r. is the Nativity of the Baptist. The history 
is continued on the l. wall with the Feast of Herod, and 
on the r. wall opposite, the Baptist is beheaded. The 
under sides of the arches which span these two last pictures 
are decorated with a variety of small designs, including 
warriors in Roman armour, Christian virtues, episodes 
from the life of Christ and S. John the Baptist, David 
preparing to slay Goliath, and Judith and Holofernes. 
They are not of any importance as works of art, but they 
illustrate the catholicity of mind and taste resulting from 
the revival of classical learning. Another suggestion of 
this mingling of ideas may be found in the figures of the 
two sibyls — the Erythrean and the Libycan — painted 
over the arches. 

The paintings on the roof illustrate the general concep- 
tion, of which the paintings below are the particular 
application. On the walls and on the altar-pieces we have 
the life of the Forerunner, the Annunciation of Messiah, 
and the Baptism which marks the beginning of the preach- 
ing of the Gospel. On the roof there is a generalisation of 
the source of the Gospel and the means by which it was 
preached and spread abroad throughout the whole world. 
In the centre of the roof is the Father Eternal, and imme- 
diately surrounding are the four writers of the Gospels, with 
S. Peter, the Apostle of the Jews, and S. Paul, the Apostle 
of the Gentiles. SS. Andrew and James complete this part 
of the design. The outer part of the picture contains the 
seven other Apostles, the four Doctors of the Latin Church, 
and the three saints especially connected with the Christian 
faith in Perugia, viz., S. Lorenzo, S. Costanzo, and S. 
Ercolano. 



82 PERUGIA 

Round the seats are the following inscriptions. To the 

L. — 

" Ite procul, moneo sacer est locus, ite profani." 
" Let the irnpious keep far off. I warn that the place is holy." 

To the R. — 

" Hie nisi casta loqui sancta que verba nefas." 
" Here it is wrong to speak, unless with pure and holy words." 

The pictures in this chapel are interesting, as showing the 
development of Umbrian art among the followers of Peru- 
gino, otherwise they need not detain the visitor. There is a 
much finer example of the work of Giannicola Manni in the 
gallery. 

In the Piazza del Municipio, to the west, is the Episcopal 
Palace, to the north, the Duomo. In the centre of the 
Piazza is 

The Fountain 

This monument is important as being a fine example of 
Italian sculpture when that art was in its most critical 
stage of development ; it is interesting as a curious illustra- 
tion of the ideals of life in a free Italian commune at a time 
when the people had thrown off external control, and had 
not yet fallen victims to passion and faction. It is, be- 
sides, valuable as a record of the customs, habits, and 
appearance of all ranks of society at the end of the thir- 
teenth century. 

The work was given to Fra Bevignate, a Benedictine, 
along with a Frate Alberto and a certain Boninsegna, a 
Venetian architect. It was begun in 1277, and water, 
brought from Monte Pacciano, came into the piazza in 1280. 
Part of the sculptor's work may have been done later, 
however, judging from records of payments for work in 
1281. The style of the sculpture is equally removed from 
Romanesque work and from Renaissance art. It has been 
recognised as belonging to the Pisan school. Niccolo 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 83 

Pisano (1206 ?-i28o ?), his son, Giovanni Pisano (1240 ?- 
1320), and Arnolfo del Cambio (1 240-1 31 5 ?), are the names 
generally associated with the sculpture. In time it stands 
midway between Niccolo's pulpit at Siena (1266) and 
Giovanni's at S. Andrea, Pistoia (1 298-1 301), and it 
resembles neither. There is a simplicity and reserve in 
the style and a directness in design which associate it 
neither with the classical tendencies of the father nor the 
Gothic tendencies of the son. If we conclude with some 
authorities that the design of the fountain was made by 
Niccolo and that the execution is that of the younger men, 
his pupils, Giovanni and Arnolfo, it may solve some of our 
difficulties. The work is untrammelled by any close 
adherence to classical models such as formed the study of 
Niccolo Pisano ; it is equally free from the uncontrolled 
energy and the artificial straining after effect that we find 
in some of the sculpture of his son Giovanni. It is full of 
that new life which was to bear good fruit in the fourteenth 
century, and it seems to anticipate the influence of Giotto 
(12 76-1 337), as we see it guiding the hand of Andrea 
Pisano (died after 1349) on the Campanile at Florence. 
Indeed, the sculpture of the fountain has more in common 
with the masterpieces of the Campanile than with the 
reliefs of the pulpits either at Siena or at Pistoia. 

The statues round the upper basin have a certain unity 
of style bespeaking the influence of definite tradition, but 
at the same time there is a sufficient individual difference to 
suggest the work of several hands. The statues of Moses, 
David, Solomon, S. John the Baptist, and S. Benedict are 
wanting in distinction and refinement. On the other hand, 
the figures of Matteo da Corregio, Herman, " Divinitas 
Excelsa," S. Lorenzo the Deacon, and " Clericus Proditor 
Sancti Erculani," are rendered in a style at once broad, 
simple , and direct, and with a cogency that it would be 
difficult to exceed. 

" Sancta Ecclesia," " Roma Caput Mundi," and the 
Saint in Contemplation, probably represent the work of 
the same or a closely allied hand, having its highest ex- 



84 PERUGIA 

pression in the " Roma/' and showing its weakness in the 
heads of SS. Peter and Paul. 

Among the feminine personifications there is a tolerably 
distinct and uniform type to be noticed in the Victory, 
The Lady of the Corn Lands, The Lady of the Fish-bearing 
Lake, and the Girl bearing the head of Holof ernes or S. 
John the Baptist. Grace and simplicity characterise all 
these figures, but it is the grace of mediaeval and not of 
classical tradition. 

The fountain consists of two lower cisterns and an upper 
basin. In this latter part of the structure there is a group 
of four women with arms intertwined , supporting a 'griffin, 
the ensign of the city, and a lion, the emblem of the Guelph 
party. 

The metal work is attributed to Rosso, a native Perugian. 

The sculpture of the whole monument is designed with 
the purpose of setting before us, by means of symbols, of 
personifications, of historical personages and scenes, of 
Bible stories and fables, a complete philosophy of life and 
society. 

In the following general outline these ideas are given as 
shortly as possible. 

The twenty-four statues on the upper cistern relate to the 
constitution of society, the bas-reliefs on the lower cistern 
deal with the development of the individuals of which that 
society is composed. 

To make the notes on these sculptures more easy to 
follow, a list is prefixed } both of the reliefs and the statues, 
in the order which they now occupy. 

Panels on the Lower Cistern of the Fountain 

i. The Fall. 

2. The Expulsion. 

3. Samson kills the Lion. 

4. Samson shorn of his locks. 

5. Fable of the old Lion. 

6. Fable of the Dog. 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 85 

7. David preparing the sling. 

8. Goliath lies dead. 

9. Romulus. 

10. Remus. 

11. Romulus and Remus nourished by the Wolf. 

12. Mother of Romulus and Remus. 

13. Fable of the Wolf and the Crane. 

14. Fable of the Wolf and the Lamb. 

15. January. Man warming himself at the fire. 

16. Woman with domestic utensils. 

17. February. Man fishing. 

18. Man carrying fish in a basket. 

j. 9. March. Man taking thorns out of his feet. 

20. Man pruning vines. 

2 1 . April. Young man with a branch and a flower in his 
hand. 

22. A young woman, with her hair dressed in coils, hold- 
ing a basket of flowers. 

23. May. A young rider with a bunch of flowers. 

24. Lady on horseback with a hawk on her wrist. 

25. June. Man cutting corn. 

26. Man binding sheaves. 

2 7- July. Man threshing with a flail. 

28. Winnowing grain. 

29. August. Man gathers figs. 

30. Young girl with a basket of fruit. 

31. September. Man treading grapes. 

32. Man carries grapes to be crushed. 

33. October. Man pouring wine into a barrel. 

34. Man making a barrel. 

35. November. Man ploughing with oxen. 

36. Young man sowing corn. 

37. December. Man cutting the carcase of a pig. 

38. Man carrying an animal on his shoulder. 

39. The Lion, the symbol of the Guelph party. 

40. The Griffin, the symbol of Perugia. 



The Mediaeval Quadrivium. 



S6 PERUGIA 

41. Grammar. \ 

42. Dialectic. > The Mediaeval Trivium. 

43. Rhetoric. J 

44. Arithmetic. 

45. Geometry. 

46. Music. 

47. Astronomy. ^ 

48. Philosophy. 

49. Eagle. 

50. Eagle: 

Statues on the Upper Cistern 

1. Heulixtus, the mythical founder of Perugia. 

2. David, King of Israel. 

3. Moses with the rod and the table of the law. 

4. Matteo da Corregio, Podesta of Perugia in 
1278. 

5. Melchisedek. 

6. The Archangel Michael. 

7. King Solomon. 

8. Herman of Sassoferrato, Captain of the People in 
Perugia in 1278. 

9. Victoria Magna. Victory. 
10. S. Peter. 

n. Ecclesia Romana. The Church. 

12. Roma Caput Mundi — Rome the head of the 
world. 

13. Divinitas excelsa — the Divine Idea represented in 
the Priesthood. 

14. S. Paul. 

15. Clericus beati Laurentii. A saint in contemplation 
of blessedness in heaven. 

16. Sanctus Laurentius bonum opus operatus est — S. 
Lorenzo, the doer of good deeds. 

17. Domina Clusii ferens granum Perusie — The lady of 
the corn lands of Chiusi bearing grain for Perugia. 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 87 

18. Augusta Perusia est fertilis de omnibus his — Perugia 
rich in all things. 

19. Domina laci ferens pisces Perusie — The lady of the 
lake bearing fish for Perugia. 

20. S. Ercolano. 

21. Clericus proditor sancti Erculani — The priest, be- 
trayer of S. Ercolano. 

22. Sanctus Bened ictus habens spiritum profetie — S. 
Benedict, having the spirit of prophecy. 

23. Puella ferens — Judith or Salome. 

24. S. John the Baptist. 

[We now attempt to give some explanation of the inten- 
tion of the sculpture. 

Man was created in the image and likeness of God. 
After the fall his supreme desire was to escape from the 
bondage of the finite and return to the infinite, to the 
source from which he was conscious of having sprung. 
The organisation of the life of society and of the individual 
must be directed to this end. 

It was believed that, as the whole constitution of the 
individual, physical, moral, and mental, was the gift of 
the Infinite, and partook in some degree of the nature of 
the Giver, the way of right living must lie in the utmost 
possible development of all aptitudes, and society must be 
so constituted that the whole capacity of each of its indi- 
vidual members should be fully actualised. The supreme 
realisation of the individual consists in the perception of 
truth — not the truth as it is concerned with relations of 
the phenomena of the visible world, but the truth 
as it is perceived in the general principles lying be- 
yond, which form the animating and eternal element 
in the transitory conditions of nature. It was therefore 
by this process of speculation, by the search after 
general principles, that man was to reach his goal. 
The condition of society in which speculative energy 
could be best developed was in the quiet and tranquillity 
of peace. Hence, as Dante says, " there sounded to the 



88 PERUGIA 

shepherds from on high, not riches, not pleasures, not 
honours, nor length of life, nor health, nor strength, nor 
beauty — but peace." 

Speculation as the supreme function of man is dependent 
on a nature duly harmonised in its parts ; there must be a 
sound body, a rightly directed will, and a fully trained 
intellect, all at peace with one another and working for 
a common end — peace in the individual is just as necessary 
as it is in society. 

The purpose of the sculpture on the lower cistern of the 
Fountain is to show how the Individual may attain the 
truly balanced life necessary for the speculative habit ; and 
the upper cistern explains the Constitution of Society which 
most fully enables the individual to actualise his capacities. 
The summing up of the idea of the whole is found in the 
figure of Philosophy, by which man reaches out to the 
divine and the infinite.] 

We begin with the panels on the lower cistern, on which 
are developed the life of the individual : 

Panels i and 2. The Temptation and Fall strike the 
note of the whole series. Discord has entered into the 
world. Man is no longer in harmony with the will of God, 
nor is his own nature in harmony with itself. The will does 
not perceive clearly what is the true good, the body asserts 
itself against the will and the reason, while the reason 
surfers alike from an ill-governed body and a wrongly 
directed will. Vice and Ignorance take the place of 
Virtue and Knowledge. 

The designer of the panels sets himself to show how the 
will, the body, and the reason are to recover their proper 
functions. 

Panels 3-14 deal with the moral and religious nature ; 
they suggest how the will of man is to be brought into true 
harmony, so that it may desire the supreme good and impel 
the whole being towards it. 

Panels 15-39 deal with the re-establishment of order and 
harmony, in the physical relations of man. 

Panels 42-48 explain the conditions of intellectual 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 89 

harmony, and how the reason is perfected by the search 
after truth. 

Panel 49. Philosophy , is a synthesis of the whole con- 
ception. 

Starting with the reliefs on the lower cistern at the north- 
western side of the Fountain, and opposite the shops under 
the Loggia : 

1. The Temptation and Fall. Eve presents the apple to 
Adam, and immediately behind her is the tree with the 
serpent twined round the stem. The design is extremely 
simple ; the heads are disproportionately large, as often 
happens in the works of the Pisan school. 

2. The Expulsion from Paradise. Adam and Eve have 
covered themselves with leaves. The hand of God in the 
left corner signifies the command that they shall leave the 
garden. The simple method by which the power of God 
is symbolised is striking. 

3 and 4. The Story of Samson. 3. In his strength, tear- 
ing open the lion's mouth. His hair floats on his shoulders, 
the symbol of his moral vigour. The expression of physical 
power is effectively rendered. 

4. Samson lies with his head in the lap of Delilah. She 
has cut off his hair, and he has lost his physical strength as 
well as his moral vigour. The lines of the composition 
indicate the point admirably. 

5. Fable of the Old Lion, who, having lost his strength, 
is attacked by all those whom he has previously injured. 
The Lion lies under a tree and the inscription runs — " Si 
vis ut timeat leo." The moral attached is that those who 
have meted out injuries in the days of their strength, 
will themselves receive injury in the days of their 
weakness. 

6. Fable of the Old Dog, with the inscription " Verbera 
Catulum." 

7 and 8. The Story of David and Goliath. The power of 
the Spirit working in David, is contrasted with the weak- 
ness of Samson. 

7. The youthful David prepares the sling. There is a) 



9 o PERUGIA 

notable contrast between the simple shepherd and the mail- 
clad warrior, suggestive of the true source of power. 

8. Goliath, the giant, clothed in armour is slain. This 
is a remarkable design ; the effect of death is most com- 
petently gained, and the disposition of the figure is skilful. 

The panels 9, 10, n, 12 relate to the foundation of the 
City of Rome. The lesson we gather is that no man can 
stand alone, no man is self-sufficient. The individual can 
only be properly developed in a well-ordered social state, 
and Rome was the divinely appointed agent for temporal 
rule. 

9 and 10 represent the twin mythical founders of Rome, 
each seated and holding vultures in their hands, in refer- 
ence to the augury drawn from the flight of these birds 
which decided the site and name of the city. 

n. The miraculous preservation of the twins nourished 
by a wolf. The tree at the back of the animal is the Ficus 
ruminalis, the sacred fig which caught the cradle of the 
future founders as it floated down the river. This is a 
most picturesque panel. 

12. The mother of the twins holding an object which has 
been explained as a sieve, to indicate that she was a Vestal 
Virgin and as a sign of chastity. 

13. Fable of the Crane who draws a bone from the 
throat of a wolf. When the reward, which has been 
offered, is claimed, the wolf reminds the crane that escape 
from his jaws is reward enough. The application is that 
the rich, who live by the labour of the poor, are like the 
wolf. They receive many benefits from the poor, and 
return evil for good. 

14. The wolf accuses the lamb of fouling the stream as 
an excuse for seizing and devouring her. The moral drawn 
is that those who act with violence and cruelty add to their 
sin by calumniating those whom they have injured. 

The use of parables, or " exempla," as they were called, 
was common in mediaeval preaching, and especially so after 
the rise of the mendicant orders. In sermons addressed to 
the unlearned, fables and stories were used as illustrations 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 91 

to fix the attention of the audience. Collections of these 
" exempla " were made for the use of preachers, and in 
many well-known cases a recognised moral was attached. 
The drift of the " exempla " on the Fountain is a warning 
against the vices of pride, oppression, and cruelty exer- 
cised by the strong against the weak, and the rich against 
the poor. 

From the Old Testament examples we see how Samson 
is lost through moral weakness, how David conquers in the 
power of the Spirit, and how Goliath falls a victim to pride. 

The panels 15 to 38 deal with order in the material 
Creation. They represent the labours and pleasures of 
man, as they correspond to the seasons of the year. 
Labour was alike a punishment and a blessing. On these 
panels it is the means of maintaining life, of supplying the 
wants of the body, and of affording scope for the pleasures 
of social existence. The subtle harmony between the 
forces of nature and the life of man is suggested in 
the parallel course of the heavens, of the seasons, and the 
labours necessary to bring to fruition the powers of the 
earth. Twenty-four panels are occupied with the labours 
and pleasures associated with the course of the sun through 
the heavens and the consequent change of season. Each 
month has two panels assigned to it with some appropriate 
illustration of human energy. In one of these panels there 
is or has been the sign of the Zodiac, to mark the relation 
between the sun, the season, and the labour. 

After the fall, man became subject to the conditions of 
time and change — his life was a passage from the infirmities 
of childhood to those of old age. The earth likewise was 
cursed for his sake, and it was only by labour that nature 
could be made to yield her increase. The food which man 
won by the sweat of his brow tempered the infirmities of 
the body, daily bread and daily work became equally 
necessary. 

The material conditions of fallen human nature were 
thus necessarily expressed in terms of the changes wrought 
by time, and of the labour by which the earth is made to 



92 PERUGIA 

yield her fruits. The passing of time was evident on every 
hand ; the new life of spring was followed by the growth of 
summer, the fruition of autumn, and the death of winter. 
The passage of the sun through the heavens summed up 
these ideas of change just as the life-giving power of his 
rays became the symbol for the idea of life. The sun in the 
heavens was the type of the Sun of Righteousness, and the 
course of the sun marked by the signs of the Zodiac became 
a figure of the life of Christ upon earth. As the passage of 
the Sun through the Natural Zodiac gave life to material 
things, so the passage of Christ through the Spiritual 
Zodiac gave moral and spiritual life to mankind. *■ 

The analogies between physical and spiritual conditions 
were widely developed. The rising up of the new life of 
spring from the death of the old life in winter was regarded 
as a type of the resurrection ; the passage of the seasons 
illustrated the ages of man. The sowing of seed, the 
harvesting of the crop, and the threshing of grain were 
imagined as the planting of the Word of God in the heart, 
the coming to judgment, and the dividing of the good from 
the evil. 

There was an analogy between labour and the sacraments 
of the Church, for as labour, in conjunction with the sun 
produced the food necessary for man's physical infirmities, 
so the sacraments, as the outward and visible signs of the 
life-giving power of the Sun of Righteousness, brought 
spiritual health and strength to the sinner. Labour does 
for the physical man what the sacraments do for the 
spiritual man. By labour the infirmities of the body are 
overcome, by the sacraments the infirmities of the soul 
are conquered. 

The connection between the sun and the labour of man 
naturally led to the representation of work in connection 
with the course of the seasons. Labour was therefore ex- 
pressed by the various occupations and interests through- 
out the months of the year, as they were regulated by the 
path of the sun through the heavens. Thus the labours of 
the months became an expression of divine beneficence by 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 93 

which man can overcome the physical effects of the fall. 
They may be described as the sacrament of labour. 

It is in relation to such ideas as these that we find plough- 
ing, sowing, reaping, and gathering into barns, taking their 
place in the popular expression of mediaeval religion, in so 
far as they express the relation between the divine will and 
the physical infirmities of man's fallen nature. We find, 
therefore, such subjects as the labours of the months 
sculptured at Lucca, at Pisa, on S. Marco in Venice, and 
on many of the French cathedrals and other churches 
throughout Western Europe. 

The panels of April and May generally differ from the 
rest, inasmuch as they illustrate the pleasures of life 
rather than the labours. It is usual to find them figured 
by young men or maidens riding gaily, and holding flowers 
in their hands, or with a wreath of flowers, and sometimes 
one of the joyous figures has a hawk on the wrist. This is 
an expression of the sympathy between the fresh life of the 
season and the joys of youth, the earthly flowers they 
bear being the figure of the spiritual flowers forming the 
heavenly crown that rewards the life led in harmony with 
the order of creation. 

December and January also stand apart from the series 
of labours. These months are nearly always illustrated by 
pleasures connected with eating and drinking, in fulfilment 
of such promises as that of Psalm cxxviii. 2, where it is 
said that those who fear the Lord shall' eat the labour of 
their hands. The passage, Isaiah xxi. 5, " Prepare the 
table, watch in the watch tower, eat, drink," was allegorised 
as referring to those who receive spiritual strength from the 
sacraments of the Church. It is probable that an idea such 
as this lay dimly behind the habit that has connected some 
Christian anniversaries with festive pleasures. 

The following is a descriptive list of the panels, 15 to 38, 
which we have been considering : — 

15. Aquarius. The sign usually placed in the right-hand 
corner has disappeared. A man warmly clothed sits before 
a fire, with a drinking vessel and a plate of food. 



94 PERUGIA 

16. Januarius, An old woman with a jug and some 
other vessel. 

17. Pisces. The sign of the two fishes|in the corner. A 
man fishing in the costume of a fisherman, as we see him 
to-day , on the Lake of Trasimeno. 

18. Februarius. A man carrying a basket, perhaps 
selling fish. 

19. Socius (so called, it is said, because this sign, Aries, 
accompanies the sun closely). A man takes the thorns 
from his feet — a figure significant of the season when one 
begins to walk barefoqt. 

20. Martius. A man prunes a vine which is trained upon 
a tree in the fashion still common in Italy. 

21. Taurus. A young man holding a branch and 
flowers. 

22. Aprilus. A young woman with a basket of flowers. 

23. Gemini, and 24, Maius. These two panels form a 
pretty picture of a hawking party. A y oung man, crowned 
with flowers and holding a spray of roses, follows a lady on 
horseback, with a hawk on her wrist. The horse on which 
the lady rides shows that the artist had much less know- 
ledge of animal form than is usual in this work. 

25. Socius (Cancer — so called for the same reason as 
Aries). A man cuts corn. 

26. Junius. A man binds sheaves. 

27. Leo (the sign has almost disappeared). A man 
threshing with a flail. The sculptor shows complete con- 
trol over the human figure in action. The effect of motion 
and effort is gained with simplicity and certainty. 

28. Julius. A man winnows. The grain falls in a 
shower from his tool. 

29. Socius (Virgo). A bareheaded man, lightly clothed, 
gathers figs in a basket. 

30. Augustus. A young girl sits under a tree with a 
basket of fruit. This is a graceful and natural figure. The 
two panels 29 and 30 make a lovely picture of rural life. 

31. Libra. A man treads grapes in a vat ; he has a staff 
in one hand. 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 95 

32. September. A man brings grapes to the press on his 
shoulders. He wears a hood and a loose tunic. The pose 
of a figure carrying weight has been accurately observed, 
and the sense of movement is competently rendered. 

33. Scorpius. A man pours wine into a cask. 

34. October. A man dressed in a long, loose tunic makes 
a cask. This is a noteworthy piece of naturalism. 

35. Sagitarius. A man ploughing with two oxen. The 
difficulty of fitting the subject into the space has not been 
overcome. The treatment of the cattle is ineffective and 
trifling. 

36. November. A man sowing ; he carries the seed in 
his apron. This is a fine piece of sculpture. The gracious 
air of the youth and the sense of effortless movement are 
alike attractive. 

37. Capricornus. A man cutting up the carcase of a pig. 

38. December. A man carries an animal, probably a 
pig, upon his shoulders. He is greeted by his dog. 

The panels 39 and 40 have respectively a Lion and a 
Griffin, the one the symbol of the Guelph party, the other 
that of the city of Perugia. 

The last division of the panels on the lower basin (41-48) 
is concerned with the seven liberal arts and with philo- 
sophy. 

The first three figures (41, 42, 43) are those of Grammar, 
Dialectic, and Rhetoric, making up the Mediaeval Trivium 
by which man is taught the art of reasoning. 

Grammar opens the gate of knowledge ; her function is 
to preserve purity of language. By means of grammar 
change in the habit of speech is regulated and restrained, so 
that man does not lose touch with the experience of past 
times on account of the strangeness and diversity of 
tongue. Grammar also teaches the art of discussing 
rightly and with due regard to precision and aptness of 
expression. 

Dialectic is the art of discussing truly ; it teaches the 
rules of right reasoning, and it formed the most important 
element of mediaeval education. 



96 PERUGIA 

Rhetoric, the third of the three ways, teaches the art of 
discussing fitly, so that men may be persuaded according to 
the will of the speaker. 

To these succeed the four figures representing the Mediae- 
val Quadrivium — Arithmetic, Geometry, Music, and Astro- 
nomy. They are the arts of the physicist, and they deal 
with the phenomena of the visible world. The universe 
was conceived of as being disposed according to number, 
weight, and measure, hence the importance of mathe- 
matics, which includes the four arts. 

The preliminaries of mathematical science are taught in 
arithmetic. By geometry man is led to perceive the con- 
tinuous existence and the immutable essence which under- 
lie phenomena. Music, having for its principle unison and 
proportion, teaches of the divine harmony, the bond com- 
mon to all creation. Astronomy, in its higher development, 
leads the soul up to first principles and nearer to the 
Creative Power. These seven arts or sciences give to the 
mind a training which fits it for the highest function of all, 
that of speculating on general principles, by which man 
learns to make himself eternal. 

The seven sciences are the handmaids of Philosophy, 
and Philosophy is the " loving use of wisdom, and that 
loving wisdom is most in God, for in Him is Highest 
Wisdom, Highest Love, and Highest Power" ("Convito," 
ii., xii. 94-98). 

Philosophy is therefore the last term of the actualisation 
of human capacity, and by it man approaches nearly to 
the Infinite. 

We go on to consider the panels in detail. 

The three first panels (41, 42, and 43) constitute the 
Trivium in the mediaeval scheme of education. 

41. Grammar. The teacher lays her hand upon the 
child's shoulder. This is a pleasant panel and effective in 
its simplicity. 

42. Dialectic wears a doctor's hood and robes, and holds 
a scorpion. The divided tail of this animal signified the 
terms of the syllogism. 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 97 

43. Rhetoric. The pupil stands in front with folded 
arms, as though reciting. The figure of the scholar is 
noteworthy. 

The next four panels constitute the Mediaeval Quadri- 
vium. 

44. Arithmetic. The scholar stands before the teacher 
counting. This is a charming relief. 

45. Geometry, represented as a woman with a pair of 
compasses bending over a desk. This is one of the most 
graceful and effective figures in the whole series. 

46. Music plays on a row of bells with a hammer. 

47. Astronomy. The teacher directs the pupil's head 
so as to look up at the stars. 

48. Philosophy. She is crowned as a queen and seated 
on a throne. Her grand air is worthy of the position that 
Philosophy takes in the scheme of the Fountain. 

Surveying these sculptures as a whole we see that there 
are three main divisions dealing (1) with religion and 
morals, (2) with the material, and (3) with the intellectual 
needs of man. The religious and moral teaching is en- 
forced in the subjects on the panels from the Temptation 
to the foundation of the social state of which Rome was 
the type. The relationship ' of man to the other forces 
of creation, is exemplified in the series of the labours of 
the months ; and the reasoning faculty by which ignorance 
is overcome is dealt with in the series of the Seven Liberal 
Arts and Philosophy. 

Religion and Morals overcoming Vice by a rightly 
directed will, intellectual capacity enlightening the dark- 
ness of ignorance, and energy developing the forces 
of nature, all furnish the means of perfecting human 
nature. The evils that have overtaken the human race, 
and the sterility with which the earth has been cursed 
as the result of the fall, are healed by the sacrament of 
love, of learning, and of labour. 

The panels 49 and 50 bring us back to the starting-point. 
The figures of the Eagle (the ensign of Pisa) were probably 
placed here by the sculptors in honour of their own town. 



98 PERUGIA 

Turning to the twenty-four statues round the upper 
cistern we find that no importance can be attached to their 
relative position. The Fountain has been restored, and 
it is evident from the inscription round the base, which 
does not run properly, that the existing order is not the 
one originally intended. 

The sculpture on the upper cistern deals with society as 
a whole, and as it has existed under the old and the new 
dispensations. Ancient Society was based on the Priest, 
the Lawgiver, and the King, typified here by Melchisedek, 
Moses, David, and Solomon. The link between the old 
and the new is found in S. John the Baptist. Through 
him we pass to society under the Christian dispensation 
resting on the Church and the Empire — as the divinely 
appointed agents of the will of God. To the Church has 
been committed the spiritual, and to the Empire the tem- 
poral destinies of society. These are represented by 
" Ecclesia Romana " and " Roma." The spiritual forces 
which control society through the Church are set forth 
under the figures of SS. Peter and Paul, " Clericus ex- 
celsa," and S. Benedict, while the special needs of Perugia 
are under the protection of SS. Lorenzo and Ercolano. 

The temporal wants of society are under the general 
direction of Rome as representing imperial power, but the 
detail of government is committed to the city of Perugia — 
her origin and her rule being explained in the figure of 
Heulixtus, the Podesta, and the Captain of the People. 

We begin with the sculpture illustrating Society under 
the old dispensation — the examples are over the relief 
of the " Temptation " and " Fall " on the lower cistern. 

Nos. 2, 3, 5, and 7 represent the typical guides of Ancient 
Civilisation. 

2. David, the King, playing a harp. This figure and 
some others near it are much spoilt by the falling 
water. 

3. Moses, the lawgiver, with the tables of the law and 
the rod of authority. The type here is more commonplace 
than in the case of King David. 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 99 

5. Melchisedek, the spiritual guide, the type of the 
priesthood. This figure is a restoration. 

7. Solomon representing the wisdom of the temporal 
ruler. An undignified figure. 

The bond between the Ancient Society and the Modern 
is found in Statue 24, that of S. John the Baptist — an 
unsatisfactory and weak piece of work. 

We now turn to the constitution of Modern Society 
under the New Dispensation. The mediaeval idea of the 
Church and the Empire was in theory a very wide one. 
The Emperor was not merely the temporal administrator, 
nor was the Pope merely the ecclesiastical ruler formally 
regulating dogma and discipline. 

The Emperor was concerned with temporal felicity. 
This is to be gained by the realisation of human capacity, 
which becomes possible through the teachings of Philo- 
sophy. When man acts in accordance with these instruc- 
tions, which he is enabled to do by the light of the moral 
and intellectual virtues, then he enjoys terrestrial happi- 
ness. It is for the Emperor so to guide the world that this 
end may be reached. 

The Pope is concerned with the felicity of eternal life. 
This is to be gained by the teachings of the Holy Spirit, 
which in the light of the theological virtues — Faith, Hope, 
and Charity — makes clear to man the revelation set forth 
by the Prophets, the Sacred Writers, and the Son of 
God. 

It is the duty of the Emperor and the Pope so to regulate 
the Empire and the Church that man may pass from the 
joys of the earthly paradise to those of the celestial para- 
dise. Having exercised all the duties of the active life, 
and enjoyed a foretaste of the eternal in the life of specula- 
tion, man at last reaches his goal, the vision of the Infinite 
and community with God. 

The following is a list of the sculptures which set forth 
these ideas. The series begin with the government of 
the town of Perugia : 

1. Heulixtus, an Etruscan king, who was supposed to 



ioo PERUGIA 

have founded the city. The sculpture is meagre and 
wanting in dignity. 

Nos. 4 and 8 represent what we may call the judicial 
and executive heads of the City State. 

4. Matteo da Corregio, Podesta of Perugia at the time 
the Fountain was being built (1278). The figure in a 
citizen's robe and cap, gains some distinction from its 
simplicity. 

8. Herman of Sassoferrato, Captain of the People in 
1278. He is dressed as a citizen ; he wears a plain cap, 
and carries a short sword and gloves. This is the figure 
of a strong, capable man, suggestive of the citizen soldier 
rather than the knight errant. Its simple breadth of 
style gives dignity and character to the work. 

9. Victoria Magna. This figure is imperfect ; the sym- 
bols have been damaged. She recalls the success in arms 
of the citizens of Perugia. 

10. 11, 12, 13 and 14 relate to the two great powers — the 
Church and the Empire, both having their seat in Rome. 
The Church (11) is represented by a young woman bearing 
a church — " Ecclesia Romana." The Empire (12) is 
figured as a crowned queen seated on a throne, peaceful 
and victorious, holding a palm-branch — " Roma caput 
mundi." The figure of the Church is one of the most 
beautiful on the Fountain. That of " Roma," though 
grievously damaged, is a marvel of strength and dignity. 
The Church is further represented by (10) S. Peter, (14) 
S. Paul, and (13) " Divinitas Excelsa." There is a certain 
dignity in the figures of the two Apostles, but the sculpture 
of their heads is entirely unworthy. " Divinitas Excelsa " 
is one of the finest in the whole series ; it would be hard 
to overrate its charming simplicity. 

5. Lorenzo, the patron saint of Perugia, in whose name 
the Duomo is dedicated, appears in a twofold relation in 
15 and 16. 

15. S. Lorenzo is the heavenly citizen. This figure is so 
unfortunately damaged that the entire effect is lost. 

16. S. Lorenzo, with the inscription, " Sanctus Lauren- 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 101 

this bonum opus operatus est." He wears the deacon's 
dress ; he is the worker of good works in the Church 
militant. This sculpture is a model of strength, simplicity, 
and directness. 

The three next figures are personifications of the city 
state and its dependencies. 

17. Domina Clusii ferens granum Perusie — The lady of 
the corn lands between Chiana and the Lake of Trasimeno. 
This is a gracefully draped figure. The face is of the same 
type as " Victoria Magna " and other of the female per- 
sonifications. 

18. Augusta Perusia, fertile in all things. A beautiful 
matron holding a horn of plenty filled with fruits. 

19. Domina laci ferens pisces Perusie— The lady of Lake 
Trasimeno yielding fish for food. This figure is not so 
charming as the lady of the corn lands. 

20. S. Ercolano, the Bishop and defender of the city 
against King Totila. He is shown here as a well-propor- 
tioned and dignified figure, with a vigorous personality. 

21. The unfortunate Cleric through whom the town was 
delivered into the hands of Totila. This figure has the 
same character of severe simplicity as those of " Divina 
Excelsa " and S. Lorenzo the Deacon. 

22. S. Benedict gives the rule of the order to his disciple 
S. Maurus. The figure of an angel at the ear of the monk 
signifies the divine inspiration granted to S. Benedict. The 
drapery of the group is remarkably fine ; the kneeling 
disciple is also a striking study ; but S. Benedict himself is 
unrefined, and wanting in elevation of character. 

23. A girl holding the head of a man, with the inscrip- 
tion, " Puella ferens." This girl has been supposed to be 
Salome, with the head of S. John the Baptist ; or Judith, 
as the saviour of her people from the rule of discord, with 
the head of Holof ernes. The figure is finely draped. The 
head she bears is of the same unworthy type as those of 
SS. Peter and Paul. 

The statue, No. 6, that of the Archangel Michael, has 
not been mentioned. It is the work of a modern sculptor. 



102 PERUGIA 

Most of the ideas which underlie the design of the 
Fountain are to be found in Dante's " De Monarchia " and 
u II Convito " — written some tw r enty or thirty years after 
it was made. Any dependence of one upon the other 
is entirely out of the question ; the recurrence simply 
shows that both the designer of the Fountain and Dante 
assumed the current speculation of the time. 

The Duomo 

Duomo of S. Lorenzo. — The Duomo, as we see it, was 

founded in 1345, but little or no progress was made for 
many years. It was not until the middle of the fifteenth 
century that the work was set about in earnest. In 1437 
the foundation of the facade was laid, Bishop Baglioni 
assisting at the ceremonial. Even to this day, however, 
the building remains unfinished. The main entrance is at 
the east end of the church, and the choir to the west. 
Probably the buildings of the Canonica, and the rapid 
fall of the ground, prevented the main entrance being de- 
signed in its usual position. The church occupies a fine 
site overlooking the piazza ; but the building is uninterest- 
ing and no advantage has been taken of the situation. 
To the l. of the door is a bronze statue of Pope Julius III., 
by Vincenzo Danti, 1555. On the r. is the pulpit from 
which S. Bernardino preached. 

The principal entrance is from the Piazza Danti. 

The nave and aisles are all of one height. They are 
separated by comparatively light octagonal columns, and 
the effect is to give an air of true Umbrian spaciousness. 
The roof is groined and the windows are pointed, but there 
is no architectural interest that need detain the visitor. 

On entering the main door the tomb of Bishop Bag- 
lioni (mentioned above) is seen to the r. There are 
sculptured upon it the four Cardinal Virtues. Fortitude 
with a pillar. Temperance pouring water into wine. 
Justice with a sword. Prudence with a book. The work 
is attributed to Urbano da Cortona, 145 1. 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 103 

To the l. is a tomb of the Oddi family in the style of 
the seventeenth century. Compare this with the Baglioni 
tomb. 

The first bay to the r. is occupied by the Chapel of 
S. Bernardino, divided from the church by a beautiful 
iron screen. The chapel is fitted with elaborately carved 
stalls, the altar-piece is a Descent from the Cross by 
Baroccio, 1568. The stained glass window of 1565 repre- 
sents S. Bernardino preaching to the Perugians. 

In the second bay is a picture presented by the guild 
of stone-workers and wood-carvers. The many fine ex- 
amples of carving and intarsiatura in the Perugian churches 
testify to the importance and the ability of the latter. 

Out of a third bay opens a small chapel containing the 
baptismal font, which is modern. The cover has the 
symbols of the Evangelists and a cross in the central panel. 
It is set in a richly carved niche, the work of a Lombard 
sculptor, Pietro Paolo di Maestro Andrei, 1477. 

On the pillar dividing the aisle from the nave is the pic- 
ture known as " Madonna della Grazie." It has the 
reputation of working miracles, and has been ascribed to 
Giannicola Manni. 

In the fifth bay is an altar-piece, Madonna and Child, 
by Cocchi. 

Right Transept. 'A seated statue of Pope Leo XIII. 
Over the door, a Pieta, by Fiorenzo di Lorenzo. To the r. 
of the altar the Death of the Virgin, by a scholar of Gentile 
da Fabriano. From this chapel we enter the Winter 
Choir. The altar-piece is by Luca Signorelli (1442-1523). 
Madonna and Child are seated on a raised throne with a 
garland hung over the back. To the l. stand S. John 
the Baptist and S. Onofrio ; to the r. are S. Stefano and 
S. Ercolano. At the foot of the throne a most ungainly 
angel plays on a stringed instrument. The colour of the 
picture as we see it to-day is dull and heavy, nor is there 
any quality of design or treatment to compensate. 
Madonna is unrefined in type, S. John the Baptist is a 
sentimental poseur, while S, Stefano looks towards the 



io 4 PERUGIA 

Child with a supercilious air. S. Onofrio was one of those 
who led a solitary life in the desert, and for sixty years 
existed without human intercourse. He is a representa- 
tive of the extreme rigour of the ascetic life ; but such a 
travesty of humanity as is here represented is unworthy 
of the artist. There is- a certain kind of heavy and con- 
ventional dignity in the ordering of the picture, and it is 
usual to praise the glass with flowers which stands in the 
foreground ; but it is difficult to realise that the painter 
of the frescoes at Orvieto should have also painted this 
picture. The date assigned to it is 1484. 

The fine stalls in the Choir, with carving and intarsia, 
are by Giuliano da Majano and Domenico del Tasso. 

In the Left Transept. Madonna and Child with SS. 
Mary Magdalen, Rocco, and another. 

On the R., a small porphyry urn with the remains of 
Popes Urban IV., died 1264, and of Martin IV., died 1285. 
The remains of Pope Innocent, who also died in Perugia 
(12 16), were transferred to Rome by Pope Leo XIII. 

Jacques de Vitry tells how, when he came to Perugia 
to be consecrated Bishop of Acre, he found that Pope 
Innocent III. had just died. The body was exposed in 
the Church of S. Lorenzo (not, of course, the present build- 
ing), abandoned by citizens and cardinals, who were busy 
with the election of a new Pope. The body was nearly 
naked, having been stripped of its rich garments the night 
before. " I entered the church and saw with my own eyes 
how brief and vain is the uncertain glory of this world." 

Martin IV. was honoured by a public funeral, for which 
the people were taxed, as the canons were not willing to 
undertake the expense. Many lame and blind people were 
brought to the funeral, and through the merits of the Pope 
were healed and freed from their diseases. 

In the left nave, first bay, is a relief by Agostino di 
Duccio. In the upper part is the Father Eternal and two 
angels • below, Christ rises from the tomb between Mary 
and S. John. 

To the l. is a Sienese picture of SS. John the Baptist and 



MONUMENTS IN CENTRE OF TOWN 105 

John the Evangelist. To the r., Madonna and Child with 
SS. Peter, Paul, John the Baptist, and a bishop. At the 
end of the nave opposite the Chapel of S. Bernardino is 
the Chapel of the Ring — so called from the ring with which 
Joseph espoused the Virgin. In 985 a Roman Jew who 
was selling jewels to a certain Ranieri, a goldsmith of 
Chiusi, presented him with an onyx, saying, " If thou 
knewest the dignity of this gem thou wouldst esteem it 
more than all the rest, for it is the ring with which Joseph 
espoused Mary." Ranieri took it home, and its existence 
was forgotten until, on the death of his only son, he was 
reminded of it, for when they were carrying the body to 
burial the youth rose up and reminded his father of the 
ring, as by its virtue he had been brought to life again. 
The ring was taken to the Church of S. Mustiola, and there 
it worked miracles. But the monks into whose hands it 
was committed grew careless, and one of them, in 1473 — 
a German, Winter by name — stole it, intending to take it 
to his own country. As he left Chiusi a dense fog was 
sent upon him so that he could see nothing ; he lost his 
way and found himself back at his starting-place. Having 
a friend in Perugia, he went there, and was taken to Braccio 
Baglioni, who sent him to the Priors. It was unanimously 
agreed that the ring was a gift from heaven, and that it 
should never be allowed to leave Perugia. Siena and the 
Pope both tried to recover the treasure for Chiusi, but in 
spite of the weakness of their title the Perugians kept 
possession of it. The picture of the Sposalizio now at 
Caen, once attributed to Perugino, but now believed to be 
by Lo Spagna, was painted for this chapel. The intarsia 
work of the seats is fine. On the pillar forming the 
corner of the chapel is a fragment — a portrait of S. 
Bernardino. 

In the l. nave there is a banner by Bonfigli, forming 
the altar-piece. Christ has darts in his hand prepared 
against the town of Perugia, Madonna kneels implor- 
ing mercy. Below is the town and a crowd of kneeling 
citizens. 



106 PERUQIA 

THE CANONICA 

To the west of the Duomo a mass of buildings include 
the Seminary and the Canonica. Within, there is a cloister 
and an open stairway and loggia, forming one of the most 
picturesque architectural monuments in Perugia. 

In the cloister a number of fragments of sculpture, archi- 
tectural details, and tablets have been preserved. 

i. A figure of S. Lorenzo with his gridiron, of rude work- 
manship. 91. Creation of Eve. 94. Creation of Eve and 
the Fall. 134. Madonna and Child. 

A tablet records the election at Perugia of the following 
Popes : — 

Honorius III. in succession to Innocent III. in 12 16. 

Clement IV. „ Urban IV. „ 1264. 

Honorius IV. „ Martin IV. „ 1285. 

Clement V. „ Benedict XI. „ 1305. 

The last of these elections marks an epoch in the history 
of the Papacy, and it had an indirect effect on the extension 
of popular government in Perugia, and in many other parts 
of Italy. 

The death of the Emperor Frederick II. in 1250, and the 
conquest of Naples by Charles of Anjou in 1266, had 
destroyed the influence of the Empire. But though the 
Papacy had crushed the Empire, there was still the King of 
France to reckon with, and in this relation two strong and 
commanding natures met and crossed each other's paths 
during the last decade of the thirteenth century. Boniface 
VIII. was Pope and Philip the Fair was King of France. 

The struggle between them ended in the downfall and 
death of Boniface in October 1303. The cardinals at once 
elected Benedict XL as his successor, but the position of 
the new Pope was so insecure that he left Rome after Easter 
1304, and came by way of Orvieto to Perugia. Feeling 
himself safe in Perugia, and dreading a general council 
which the enemies of Boniface VIII. demanded, he ven- 



THE CANONICA 107 

tured to promulgate a Bull against those who had been 
concerned against the late Pope. It was affixed to the 
doors of the Duomo in Perugia, and called upon those 
named to appear before him. 

On the yth July 1304 Benedict died, and when the cardi- 
nals met, the two parties, those friendly to Boniface and 
those who favoured the King of France, were irreconcil- 
able. The palace in which the conclave was held is 
described as being the residence of the Pope; it was con- 
tiguous to the palace of the bishop and to the rooms be- 
longing to the Cathedral. The building was burnt in 1534, 
but from the description of its situation it probably occu- 
pied the site of the present Canonica and Seminary. Nine- 
teen cardinals met in Perugia on the 10th July 1304, and it 
was not till the 5th June 1305 that the next Pope was pro- 
claimed. A compromise was agreed upon — the friends of 
Boniface were to name three northern prelates, and the 
friends of the King of France were to make the choice ; 
and so ended the last conclave held in Perugia. The 
result of this election was the settlement of the Papacy 
at Avignon for the seventy years of the Babylonish cap- 
tivity. The fact that for the greater part of the fourteenth 
century there was neither Pope nor Emperor in Italy has 
a most important bearing on the history of popular govern- 
ment throughout the Peninsula. 

The Maiesta delle Volte. — (For permission to visit the 
chapel apply to the Custode of the Seminario.) The 
Chapel of the Maiesta delle Volte is in the street which 
passes down from the Piazza S. Lorenzo under some high 
arches ; it belongs to the building of which the Canonica 
and the Seminary form parts. The three-quarter-length 
figure of the Madonna is painted on a great scale. The 
Child stands on her knee and she caresses him tenderly. 
The drapery is richly decorated. Note the long hands and 
thin fingers. 

Church of S. Martino. — In the Via del Verzaro, near the 
Piazza Felice Cavallotti, is the Church of S. Martino. Over 
the high altar is a picture by Gianni cola Manni, represent- 



108 PERUGIA 

ing Madonna and Child attended by S. John the Baptist 
and S. Lorenzo. The picture is graceful and pleasant, with 
the detached air not uncommon in Umbrian pictures. The 
feminine figure of the Baptist is carefully balanced with that 
of S. Lorenzo, who has his gridiron and a palm branch to 
signify victory. The central group of the Mother and 
Child is insignificant. On the western wall to the l. of the 
door as we enter is an illustration from the life of S. 
Martin. The young soldier wearing a helmet and coat of 
mail, and already encircled with the saintly nimbus, sits on 
a prancing horse attended by several armed men. His 
expression is that of an easy optimism, and he gracefully 
cuts his robe to give it to the beggar. Above him, Christ 
appears in glory attended by four angels ; but as this part 
of the picture is much damaged, it is difficult to say 
whether He wears the robe of charity which S. Martin had 
given to the beggar. 



CHURCHES IN THE NORTH-WESTERN 
DISTRICT 

S. Agostino. — This church, in the north-west district of 
the town, was originally of pointed design, but it has since 
received a Renaissance lining. Some remains of pointed 
chapels are shown in which there are traces of fourteenth- 
century frescoes. 

In another side chapel there is a fifteenth-century fresco 
representing Madonna with SS. Joseph and Jerome. It is 
of the usual Umbrian type, and probably is the work of one 
of Perugino's scholars. 

The most interesting feature in the church is the choir 
stalls, fine examples of intarsiatura work, which were de- 
signed by Perugino and executed by Baccio d'Agnolo (1462- 
1543). The centre panels have a representation of the 
Annunciation. 

The Sacristy, which is beautifully panelled, has an 
armoria of the sixteenth century, containing a number of 



CHURCHES IN NORTH-WESTERN DISTRICT 109 

relics. A calendar with a relic of the appropriate saint, for 
each day in the year, should be noticed. 

The larger part of the pictures in Sala X. of the Pina- 
coteca, in the Palazzo Pubblico, came from this church ; 
and many of them formed part of the great altar-piece, 
painted by Perugino, the largest pieces being No. 20, the 
Nativity, and No. n, the|Baptism. 

The picture was contracted for in 1502, but was not 
finished for many years. (See Dr Williamson's " Peru- 
gino/' p. 88.) 

The Chapel of the Confraternity of S. Agostino is entered 
to the r. of the little piazza in front of the church. In it 
there are a number of sixteenth-century pictures. The roof 
is elaborately carved and gilt. 

Church of S. Angelo. — The round Church of S. Angelo 
stands on high ground near the walls and close to the gate 
of S. Angelo at the north-western end of the city. Its 
circular form has attracted some attention, and it is said 
to stand on the site of a pagan temple. 

The building rests upon sixteen columns of various sizes 
and styles ; and there is also, near the high altar, a cippus 
with a Roman inscription, and behind the high altar a slab 
of stone, said to be a pagan sacrificial table, probably once 
used as the altar. 

The sacristan shows a stone which was used to increase 
the sufferings of martyrs ; when they were hung by their 
hands or by the hair, this stone was tied to their 
feet. 

The church is remarkable for the number of relics it 
contains. The bodies of two children, S. Severino and 
Sta. Firmina, and the body of Sta. Justina are preserved, 
besides the skulls of many other saints. 

There are some remains of Umbrian fresco in the church ; 
and in the chapel to the r., the Madonna del Verde is 
said to be the earliest fresco of the Umbrian school in 
Perugia. The Gothic doorway outside of the church, pro- 
bably added in the fourteenth century, has twisted pillars 
and capitals with foliage. 



no PERUGIA 

There is a fine view from the green sward in front of the 
church. 

In returning from the Church of S. Angelo, cross the main 
road, and take the Via Agnese opposite, which leads to the 
Convent of S. Agnese, inhabited by women of the third 
order of S. Francis. In the Capella Concezione Perugino 
has painted Madonna with kneeling figures said to repre- 
sent the sisters of the artist — to the l., S. Anthony the 
Abbot ; to the r., S. Anthony of Padua. 

In a chapel attached to the church of the Convent, a 
scholar of Pinturicchio has painted the background to a 
sculptured figure of Christ on the cross ; the figures are 
those of Madonna, SS. John, Sebastian, and Rocco. 

S. Francesco al Monte and the Aqueducts. — A pleasant 
drive may be taken by leaving the city through the gate 
of S. Angelo, the spot where, according to tradition, S. 
Dominic and S. Francis met while on their way to the court 
of Honorius III., then in Perugia, to receive from him 
the confirmation of their rules. After passing through the 
gate we see immediately in front the wooded hill crowned 
by the Church and Monastery of S. Francesco al Monte, 
the favourite retreat of Frate Egidio, one of the early dis- 
ciples of S. Francis, and the scene of the visit paid by the 
French monarch to the simple brother. In the Fioretti 
it is told that S. Louis of France, having heard of the 
great sanctity of Frate Egidio and desiring to see him, 
came to his house as a poor pilgrim, and asked to see the 
brother. Straightway Frate Egidio left his cell, and with- 
out further questions they kneeled down and embraced 
each other, as though they had been close familiar friends, 
and all without speaking. Then having continued in 
silence for some time, understanding each other far better 
than if they had spoken, they parted ; S. Louis went on his 
journey and Frate Egidio returned to his cell. 

Continuing down hill, through olive groves, we pass 
through the village of S. Marco, and a mile or two farther 
on, we see the remains of the Aqueduct, built for the pur- 



CHURCHES IN NORTH-EASTERN DISTRICT in 

pose^of bringing water from Monte Pacciano into the town, 
during the latter part of the thirteenth century. There 
was much activity in Perugia in the direction of town im- 
provements at this time, and amongst other enterprises 
there was this scheme to supply the citizens with fresh 
water. A commission was given in 1254 to a Messer 
Bonomo of Orte to bring water from Monte Pacciano, but 
his attempt was a failure ; and it was not until 1276 that 
efforts were renewed under the direction of two Bene- 
dictine monks, Frati Bevegnate and Alberto, and a Vene- 
tian architect, Boninsegna. 

The work was crowned with success, and on 12th Feb- 
ruary 1280 water came into the piazza, and the names of 
the architects are. recorded with much adulation upon the 
Fountain. 

CHURCHES IN THE NORTH-EASTERN 
DISTRICT 

The Church of S. Severe — In the eleventh century a 
certain Romualdo established a community of Benedic- 
tines at Camaldoli in the Casentino. 

The rule of the monks was strict. They had no life in 
common, and even the labour prescribed by the rule was 
done in solitude. Their aim was to reform the practice of 
the Benedictine order. 

A community of these monks settled in Perugia, and 
built a church and monastery, dedicated in the name of S. 
Severe, probably in memory of the Archbishop of Ravenna, 
Romualdo having been a native of that town, and a monk 
at S. Apollinare-in-classe. In this monastery Raphael, 
when a youth, painted part of a fresco, which was finished 
many years afterwards by Perugino, towards the end of his 
life. The design fills a lunette, in the lower part of which 
is a niche with Madonna and Child. Raphael's part of the 
picture has for its centre Christ showing the wounds of the 
Passion. An angel floats in the air at each side in adora- 
tion, and over the head of Christ is the dove of the Holy 



ii2 PERUGIA 

Spirit. At the top of the lunette there was originally the 
Father Eternal, but nothing is now left except the a and 
SI on the leaves of a book. 

The intention of the design is to set forth a manifestation 
of the Trinity, which is without beginning and without 
end. In the lower part of Raphael's design are seated 
S. Benedict and S. Romualdo, each accompanied by two 
of their disciples. All are clothed in white, for according 
to the legend it was given to S. Romualdo to see a ladder 
reaching up into heaven : on it were his brethren in white 
robes, and so he changed the black habit of the Benedictine 
rule into the white one we see here. 

With S. Benedict, the patriarch of the whole order re- 
formed and unreformed, sit his disciples, SS. Maurus and 
Placidus. With S. Romualdo are SS. Benedict and John, 
Camaldolese monks, who suffered martyrdom in Poland, 
S. Placidus and S. Benedict the Martyr have robes of rich 
colour over their white gowns. 

The picture was finished by Perugino, who many years 
after painted the row of saints that stand below the design 
of Raphael. To the l. are Sta. Scholastica and SS. Jerome 
and John the Evangelist ; to the r., S. Martha and SS. 
Boniface and Gregory the Great. S. Martha is perhaps 
placed here in relation to Sta. Scholastica as the one who, 
according to tradition, was the first to gather together a 
convent of sisters, while Sta. Scholastica as the first Bene- 
dictine nun may be regarded as the foundress of conventual 
life for women. 

There is nothing in Raphael's part of the work to indicate 
his future fame ; it may, however, be noticed that his faces 
are not of the broad-browed and flat type common with 
Perugino and many of his scholars. 

The six large standing figures which Perugino painted 
below are heavy and dull. They pose in purposeless atti- 
tudes, and, with their expressionless faces, they represent 
the master perhaps at his worst. 

In the Via Pinturicchio, close to the Porta Pesa, is the 
Church of S. Maria Nuova, begun in 1376, partly rebuilt in 



CHURCHES IN NORTH-EASTERN DISTRICT 113 

1450. Over the second altar on the r. is a banner by 
Bonfigli. Christ in the centre is prepared to strike the 
people with the arrows of pestilence which He bears in His 
right hand. His face is that of a minister of fate, who 
has neither control over the judgments nor concern with 
their fulfilment. Its impersonal aloofness could have 
brought small consolation to those who suffered. At each 
side of this great figure saints bear the instruments of 
the Passion, and above are the sun and moon. At the 
feet of Christ kneel the Madonna and the Franciscan S. 
Paolina. The lower part of the picture is divided from 
the upper by an arch ; under it crouch the people of 
Perugia, and over them hovers Death. At the sides of 
the groups of citizens kneel S. Benedict and Sta. Scholastica 
praying for their deliverance. 

Over the fourth altar is a copy of a picture by Perugino, 
now in the National Gallery, London. 

The choir stalls are by Paolino oVAscoli, 1456 ; they are 
richly carved and ornamented with intarsia. 

The most direct way to reach the Churches of S. Fiorenzo 
and the Carmine as well as the Porta Pesa, is to leave the 
Piazza Sopramura (or Giuseppe Garibaldi) by the Via 
Alessi. The first turning to the r. leads to the Church of 
- S. Fiorenzo. Over the altar in the r. transept there is one 
of the " Banner " pictures common in Perugia. It was 
painted in 1476 by Bonfigli. Madonna is a coarse version 
of the painter's usual type. Four angels support a 
basket of flowers on which the Child stands. The four 
attendant saints are, to the r., S. Sebastian and another ; 
to the l., SS. Filippo Benizzi and Fiorenzo : they surround 
a group .of kneeling citizens. Behind the high altar, 
Madonna and Child of the school of Giotto. The Madonna 
dei Ansidei, now in the National Gallery, hung in this 
church. 

Return to the Via Alessi and follow the line of street to 
the Piazza del Duca and take the steps leading down to 
the Church of the Carmine. In the choir behind the high 



ii4 PERUGIA 

altar is a banner picture, a Gonfalone della Madonna, 
by Bonfigli. Madonna is robed in white and gold ; it is 
a charming creation, in some respects finer than Bonfigli's 
Madonna in the Gallery ; the type is stronger, the de- 
corative painting more restrained and effective. At the 
lower right-hand corner there is a kneeling group of Pope, 
Emperor, Cardinal, and people. Over the third altar in 
the nave there is a highly venerated painting without much 
artistic distinction. 

Pass out of the Porta del Carmine and follow the Via 
Fonte Nuovo, in about fifteen minutes the Church of S. 
Bevignate is reached. The interior is formed of a nave 
without aisles, divided into two bays with groined vault- 
ing. The choir is of small size ; it is also roofed with 
groined vaulting. An altar in the Renaissance style has 
been built into the eastern wall of the choir and the frescoes 
have thus been destroyed. On the wall of the choir 3 to the 
r., the fresco of the Last Judgment may be of the thir- 
teenth century ; on the wall opposite there is a fresco of 
the Last Supper. On the nave wall, to the r. of the choir, 
there is a Giotteschi Crucifixion of the fourteenth century. 
On the l. wall of the nave there is a fresco dating perhaps 
from the end of the thirteenth century, two Franciscans 
with SS. Mary Magdalene and James. On the side walls 
of the nave there are figures of the Apostles. 

Externally there is a quality of rude vigour in the build- 
ing ; strong buttresses, square on ground plan, are carried 
to the level of the roof ; the east end is square and at one 
time a two-light pointed window has been opened in it. 



CHURCHES IN THE SOUTH-EASTERN 
DISTRICT 

S. Domenico. — The Church of S. Domenico lies at the 
south-eastern side of the town, on the way to S. Pietro dei 
Cassinesi. The Campanile is one of the landmarks of 
Perugia, a short tower, pierced with large openings. Its 



CHURCHES IN SOUTH-EASTERN DISTRICT 115 

bald and neglected appearance is in keeping with the 
blank walls of rough brickwork and the gaunt/ half- 
ruinous look of the whole building. It is, indeed, no un- 
fitting symbol of the renunciation of the world preached by 
the founder of the order to which it belongs, for it seems to 
owe nothing to the care of man. 

The original pointed design has received a Renaissance 
lining, better fitted to express worldly magnificence than 
the ascetic life of the mendicant preachers. 

The only remains of the original pointed church are some 
details of a chapel at the foot of the belfry, reached by a 
door opening out of the northern transept, where there are 
fragments of frescoes relating to the life of Sta. Caterina. 
The great eastern window is also a remnant of the Gothic 
church. In the fourth chapel in the r. aisle is a work by 
Agostino di Duccio (the sculptor of S. Bernardino). It 
consists of frescoes framed in graceful terra-cotta designs. 
The subject is the Glory of the Virgin, who sits in the semi- 
circle at the top, with the Child upon her knee, attended 
by angels. Beneath are the two busts of David and 
Isaiah, the human ancestor, and the prophet of the life 
which was to work the salvation of mankind. At the sides 
of the monument are the Angel Gabriel and Madonna in 
Annunciation. Below them stand S. John the Baptist 
as forerunner, and S. Lorenzo as confessor-martyr and 
patron of Perugia. Around the niche, which is now empty, 
are small pictures illustrating acts of mercy and miracles 
wrought by the intervention of Madonna. 

The large eastern window is filled with modern glass. 
The circle at the top of the window contains the figure of 
Christ with cherubim and seraphim. Below, in the pointed 
arches, are prophets and evangelists. In the upper range 
of large figures the Archangel Gabriel and the Virgin are in 
the centre, SS. Peter and Paul at the extreme r. and 
l. In the centre of the next course are the two Perugian 
bishops, SS. Ercolano and Costanzo, with S. Dominic and 
the martyrs SS. Stefano, Peter (Martyr), and S. Lorenzo. 
The next range of figures have the four Doctors of the 



n6 PERUGIA 

Churchy Pope Benedict XL, and a Dominican ; the lowest 
range of figures consists of six female confessors and 
martyrs. 

The l. transept contains the most important monu- 
ment in the church, viz., the Tomb of Benedict XI.,* 
originally attributed to Giovanni Pisano but not now be- 
lieved to be a work of this master. The Pope died in Perugia 
in 1304, and the work was executed shortly afterwards. 
The design suffers from the lightness of the supporting 
columns and the skeleton-like outline of the cusped arch 
and of the arcading which forms the upper part of the 
monument. Under it the Child sits on Madonna's knee 
and receives the homage of the Pope. The sculpture itself 
falls below the style of the lower part of the monument, 
and the architectural forms interfere with the proper effect 
of this group. Neither are the busts of SS. Peter and Paul, 
a monk, and an Apostle, on the face of the canopy, at all 
equal to the main design. But when this is said, nothing 
except praise remains for what is one of the finest monu- 
ments and one of the most perfect examples of sepulchral 
sculpture in Italy. At the head and foot of the dead man 
are angels withdrawing the curtains so that we may see 
the recumbent figure. It must be admitted that the 
subject of the curtain-drawing angels, which became a 
Tuscan tradition, is rather petty in conception, but in this 
instance the extreme beauty and grace of the angels so 
occupies the mind that the motive is scarcely noticed. 
The figure of the Pope is a most harmonious design ; the 
face suggests neither death nor life, but only eternal peace. 
The graceful lines of the drapery, and the solemn sim- 
plicity of the form, erring neither in gaunt asceticism nor 
in dramatic suggestion, make up a composition such as is 
hardly equalled elsewhere. The subtle art of the sculptor 
has left behind all trace of Romanesque rudeness, and it 
has not yet suffered from the mannered weakness and the 
feeble melodrama of later times. 

Over the third altar, in the l. nave, is a banner. Christ 
holding arrows of pestilence is seated between Madonna 



CHURCHES IN SOUTH-EASTERN DISTRICT 117 

and John the Baptist. Below are two angels, one shooting 
arrows, and the other sheathing his sword. At the foot 
are the people of Perugia, with SS. Dominic and Catherine. 

Continue along the Corso Cavour, passing through the 
fifteenth-century gateway, Porta S. Pietro ; by the Via 
Borgo Venti Giugno we reach S. Pietro dei Cassinesi, a 
Benedictine foundation, dating from the later part of the 
tenth century. 

The Campanile is picturesque, and from the direction of 
Assisi it is seen from a long distance, forming with the mass 
of monastic building a most striking feature in the land- 
scape. 

The founder of the monastery, S. Pietro Vincioli, was a 
man of force and character, and amongst other things he 
impressed his own generation by his power of working 
miracles. One of these is connected with the building of 
the church. It is recorded in a picture in the fifth bay of 
the r. aisle, where a granite column (now the second to 
the l. of the nave) is seen suspended in the air by the will 
of the abbot, the rope having broken. 

Cross the courtyard, and enter the church by a door on 
the l. The doorway is framed with carving of the six- 
teenth century. 

The Interior is basilican in character. The nave is 
divided from the aisles by antique columns removed from 
the Church of S. Angelo, originally built on the site of a 
pagan temple. 

The eastern part of the church is separated from the 
nave by a triumphal arch, on which is painted the Annun- 
ciation ; the form of this part of the church is pointed. 
There are no transepts, and the shallow recesses formed by 
the piers of the triumphal arch are used as organ lofts. 
The flat wooden roof is coffered, and richly coloured and 
gilt. No part of the wall surface is left without decoration 
of some kind, and although for the most part the paintings 
are uninteresting and poor, the general effect of the broad 
and simple nave, the brilliant colouring, and the dark 
masses of the choir stalls, is distinctly striking. 



n8 PERUGIA 

Turning to the pictures in the church, there is immedi- 
ately to the r. of the central door an indifferent picture, 
by Orazio Alfani (15 10-1583), giving facts from the life of 
S. Peter. It contains a traditional portrait of Perugino. 

Right Aisle — First bay. A pleasing painting by an un- 
known hand, representing Madonna and Child with S. 
Mary Magdalene and S. Sebastian. 

Third bay. A very poor and mannered Assumption of 
the Virgin, by Orazio Alfani. It serves to remind us of the 
depth to which art fell in the sixteenth century. 

Fourth bay. A picture commemorating a miracle worked 
by the founder, S. Pietro Vincioli. While one of the granite 
columns was being placed in position the rope broke, but 
by the power of the saint the column remained suspended 
in the air until guided to its place. 

Seventh bay. A picture representing the choice offered to 
King David between war, pestilence, and famine. 

Eighth bay. A picture attributed to Masolino (1383 ?- 
1440 ?), in which S. Benedict, attended by SS. Maurus and 
Placidus, gives the rule to a group of kneeling monks. 

Ninth bay. A picture showing how at the intercession of 
Pope Gregory the Great the plague was stayed in Rome. 
The Archangel Michael appears in the sky sheathing his 
sword ; below is the castle of S. Angelo, by Salimbeni. 

Tenth bay. To the r. opens the small chapel dedicated 
to S. Joseph ; above the door, on the inside, is a fresco by a 
scholar of Perugino. Also copies of pictures by Raphael. 

Over the entrance to the monastery is a Marriage of 
S. Catherine, by Bonifazio. Opposite to the entrance to the 
monastery, on the pier of the triumphal arch, is a Descent 
from the Cross, attributed to Sebastiano del Piombo (1485- 

1547). 

In the Sacristy, which opens out of the r. aisle, there 
are five fragments by Perugino, parts of an altar-piece, the 
principal part of the picture having been taken from 
Perugia by the French. They represent three Benedictines, 
viz., Sta. Scholastica, the sister of S. Benedict ; S. Maurus, 
one of his principal disciples ; and S. Pietro Vincioli, the 



CHURCHES IN SOUTH-EASTERN DISTRICT 119 

founder of the monastery. The other two panels repre- 
sent two of the patrons of Perugia — SS. Ercolano and 
Costanzo. 

Near the window — The Crowning with Thorns, by 
Bassano. On the wall opposite the window — Two Children, 
by Raphael) Madonna and Child, by Parmigiano ; The 
Head of Christ, by Dosso Dossi. 

There are in the Sacristy andTin an adjoining room some 
finely illuminated choral books. They are the work of 
Piero di Giacomo da Pozzuolo (1471-1472), Bocchardini di 
Firenze (1517-1518), and Maestro Mose di Napoli (1525- 
1526). 

The Choir. At the entrance to the choir there are to the 
r. and l. ambones decorated in the Renaissance style. 
They may be regarded as elaborate examples of the taste of 
the end of the fourteenth century. 

The choir stalls are the work of Stefano of Bergamo 
( I 535) > the carving and the intarsiatura are said to be 
from designs by Raphael. On the arms of the stalls to the 
l. there may be found the four symbols of the Evangelists, 
and the punishment of the damned — tormented by ser- 
pents. On the r. are various symbolical animals, such as 
griffins, dolphins, dragons, winged horses, and sphinxes. 
On the carved panels at the back of the upper row of stalls 
there are designs of the Nativity, of S. Jerome in the 
Desert, and of the Ascension of Christ. The finest pieces 
of intarsiatura are on either side of the door opening on to 
the balcony at the back of the choir ; they represent to the 
r. the Finding of Moses by the daughter of Pharaoh, and to 
the l. the Annunciation. 

There is no doubt an intentional apposition in the choice 
of these two subjects, as Moses, the redeemer of the Israel- 
ites from bondage and their lawgiver, was regarded as a 
type and figure of Christ. Near to the entrance there is a 
" f)ila," or holy water basin, with the figures of fish carved 
in relief. The intention, probably, is to allude to the 
symbolical meaning given to the fish as a figure of Christ : 
" This is that Fish which in Baptism is brought by in- 



120 PERUGIA 

vocation into the waters of the font, so that what was 
water is, from Piscis, called Piscina." 

Out of the door, which leads on to a balcony, there is a 
magnificent view over the surrounding country. Above 
this door (inside) is a Madonna and Child, by Giannicola 
Manni. 

Left Aisle. At the end of the l. aisle is a Pieta, by Bon- 
figli (1425-1496). To the l. a stout and burly S. Jerome 
translates the Scriptures, and receives inspiration for the 
task from an angel. To the r. stands S. Leonard, a stiff 
and expressionless form, bearing a yoke in his right hand. 
This symbol reminds us of his works of charity for those 
who suffer adversity in prison or in slavery. In the centre 
of the picture Madonna bears the dead body of Christ on 
her knee. There is no undue exaggeration of expression 
nor of weak sentiment, but there is an unimaginative 
realism and a consequent lack of dignity in the conception. 

The love of decoration comes out in the rich hanging in 
the background. This tendency may be noticed in some of 
the examples by Bonfigli in the gallery. 

In the Baglioni Chapel there is a marble altar-piece by 
Mino da Fiesole (1 431 -1484), an unfortunate example of 
the master's manner. The subject is the Rising from the 
Tomb. Above the altar-piece is an Annunciation, an un- 
important picture by Pintuncchio (1454-15 13). On the 
r. wall of the chapel is a picture by Sassoferrato. 

Farther on, in the l. aisle, is a copy, by Sassoferrato, of 
Raphael's Entombment. 

The Capella Ranieri has a picture by Guido Reni (15 74" 
1642), which need not detain the visitor. 

The Chapel of the Holy Sacrament contains some ex- 
ceedingly bad paintings by Giorgio Vasari (15 12-1574), the 
historian of Italian art. These pictures are filled with 
enormous figures — pale, dry, hard, and uninteresting. They 
are supposed to have been painted in 1566. There is also 
an unimportant fragment attributed to Lo Spagna (work- 
ing 1503-1532 ?). 

Ninth bay. Adoration of the Magi, by Eusebio di San 



CHURCHES IN SOUTH-EASTERN DISTRICT 121 

Giorgio (working 1492-1527). This picture is distinctly 
one of the most satisfactory in the church, and it places 
Eusebio on a higher level than other examples attributed 
to him in the picture gallery. We may remark the growing 
tendency to realism which permits the representation of 
one of the kings as a negro. 

Seventh bay. Annunciation. Supposed to be a copy 
from Raphael, made by Sassoferrato (1605-1685). A 
paltry effect is given by the representation of the Father 
Eternal seen through a window. 

Fifth bay. Entombment, said to be by Perugino. It 
has nothing to recommend it ; we note in particular 
the feeble rendering of the nude. 

Pass through the Giardino del Frontoiie down to the 
Church of S. Costanzo. The church is outside the town, 
on the same ridge of hill as that upon which S. Pietro 
dei Cassinesi stands, and is reached from the Porta S. 
Pietro. The small building, with its simple and graceful 
bell-tower, and its round-arched portico on the southern 
side, forms a picturesque group with the Casa di Parrochia 
behind. The ground falls away rapidly to the east, 
north, and south, and the piazza in front of the church 
commands a wide view over the spacious Umbrian 
valley. 

S. Costanzo, or Constantius, a Perugian, was elected 
the second bishop of his city, about the middle of the 
second century. He lived a godly and holy life, being 
described as just, strong, prudent, and temperate ; and 
when the soldiers of Marcus Aurelius tried to constrain 
him to abjure his faith, he endured persecution with forti- 
tude, issuing unhurt from the flames of the furnace, and 
singing hymns in the cauldron of boiling oil. He was 
decapitated near Foligno on the 28th of January 154, 
or according to others in 173, and his body was carried 
by a pious disciple to the place called Aiola, outside of 
the gate of S. Pietro of Perugia, and honourably buried, 
upon the spot where the Church of S. Costanzo now stands. 



i22 PERUGIA 

Every year on the 28th of January it was the custom of the 
magistrates, with the colleges of the arts, all the religious 
bodies, and the clergy, to visit the shrine of this saint, one 
of the patrons of the city, in procession, with the greatest 
devotion and magnificence. Ten prisoners were liberated 
annually on that day in honour of the saint, and all the 
expenses of the procession were borne by the Commune. 
The present church is a building dating from the end of 
the twelfth century, and is especially noteworthy as the 
only example of the Romanesque style of architecture in 
Perugia. It has been restored mainly at the instance 
of Pope Leo XIII. , who was formerly Bishop of Perugia. 
The sculpture upon the western facade has several 
interesting features characteristic of the art of the 
twelfth century. The principal theme is the Announce- 
ment of the Gospel to all nations, and the regenerating 
power of the Word, upon the life of the Christian. 

Upon the pediment at the top of the building is the 
figure of the Eternal surrounded by an aureole, at the foot 
of which spring branches of the vine, symbolical of the 
Church upon earth. Below this figure is a round window, 
with stone tracery composed of crosses and circles. In the 
centre is the Lamb, the Agnus Dei, holding the ensign of 
the resurrection. Round the circular window are the 
symbols of the four Evangelists supported on brackets. 
At the top are the Eagle (S. John) and the Angel (S. 
Matthew) ; at the bottom are the Ox (S. Luke) and the 
Lion (S. Mark). The window as a whole suggests the 
triumph of the Lamb, and the conquest of the world by 
the Gospel, which was spread over the four quarters of 
the globe. The sculptured friezes both above and below 
this window have figures of animals in the attitude of 
adoration before a cross or an altar, significant of the 
praise which all creation offers trj the Lamb. On either 
side of the porch upon the wall are four panels, with the 
Cross as the principal theme. The two nearest to the 
door have on the arms of the cross and at the foot the 
figures of doves, lions, and griffins, representing the strong 




Photograph : J. W. Cruickshcmk 

THE SYMBOLS OF S. JOHN AND S. MARK 

(By Buonamicus. Campo Santo, Pisa) 

Compare with the carving at S. Costanza, Perugia 



CHURCHES IN SOUTH-EASTERN DISTRICT 123 

and the proud, who, as well as the meek and simple souls, 
take refuge beside the cross. 

The sculpture round the doorway repeats, in a slightly 
different form, the ideas expressed in the upper part of the 
facade. The workmanship is rude, but in spite of the 
technical deficiencies the figures have an air of dignity 
and vitality. 

Upon the lintel, the Eternal is seated on a rainbow r 
enclosed within a glory, in the act of blessing and holding 
a roll of the law. At the sides are the four symbols of the 
Evangelists, each with an open book. The figure of the 
Legislator, with His servants the Evangelists, was the 
subject almost universally chosen for the principal place 
upon the west front of churches up to the end of the 
twelfth century. After that time the usual theme became 
the Last Judgment. In place of the Manifestation of the 
Word there is the Judgment. 

The sculptured jambs have suffered much damage, and 
do not now appear to be in their original position. 

A running scroll, with men and animals among the 
leaves, is a favourite subject for the lintel and side-posts 
of doorways. Other examples will be found on such 
Romanesque churches as the Duomo, Assisi ; S. Pietro, 
and the Duomo, Spoleto ; and the Duomo, Spello, where 
the main theme is the same, that of a plant bearing fruit 
and leaves, with men and animals in its branches. 

There was evidently a symbolical significance attached 
to such figures, but no very satisfactory explanation has 
yet been given to cover all the variations in representation. 

It has been suggested that the plant represents that 
which provides safety, shelter, and healing for the soul ; it 
stands in fact for the same ideas as the symbolical tree in 
the book of Revelation, whose leaves were for the healing 
of the nations, and as the vine of the Lord. 

The figures in the branches are symbols, signifying both 
the unregenerate man and the man whose wild and savage 
nature is changed to a state of holiness by feeding upon 
the Word. 



124 PERUGIA 

A careful comparison of the various examples to be found 
in Romanesque sculpture would very probably lead to a 
more satisfactory solution of the underlying meaning. 

At S. Costanzo, on the l., at the foot of the jamb, are 
several wild beasts tearing and rending one another, as man 
in the unregenerate state is a prey to evil passions. Above 
these animals a contrast is offered by birds dwelling in 
safety and peace among the branches, significant of the 
joys of those who live in harmony with the divine ruling. 
These two groups may also allude to the punishment of the 
wicked in hell, and the reward of the blessed in heaven, 
while birds feeding upon the vine, and drinking from the 
chalice, are symbols of the Sacrament of the Eucharist, the 
instrument by means of which the regenerate nature is 
strengthened and the hope of blessedness attained. 

The interior has been entirely restored. The walls and 
ceiling have been painted with symbolical designs, and 
several panel pictures, as well as the high altar, are in the 
Byzantine manner. The effect is good, and admirably 
suited to the general character of the building. 



CHURCHES IN THE WESTERN DISTRICT 

To reach the churches in the western part of the city 
leave the Corso Vanucci by the Via dei Priori (close to the 
Palazzo Communale). Just before reaching the Piazza 
of S. Francesco there is the small Church of S. Madonna 
della Luce. Inquire for the custode at the neighbouring 
bookshop. The altar-piece has been attributed to Tiberio 
d' Assist ; Madonna and Child with SS. Francis and Louis 
of Toulouse ; above, in the sky, two angels bear a crown 
over the head of Madonna. 

Turn to the r. on leaving this church and enter the 
Piazza S. Francesco. 
The Oratory of S. Bernardino was built in 1459, fifteen 



CHURCHES IN WESTERN DISTRICT 125 

years after the death of the saint. The facade is covered 
with sculpture executed by Agostino di Duccio in 1461. 

The central subject is the Glory of S. Bernardino. In 
the pediment Christ sits in the act of blessing, attended 
by angels in adoration. On the pilasters on each side of 
the building are two niches. The upper ones have a re- 
presentation of the Annunciation, to the l. the Arch- 
angel Gabriel, and to the r. Madonna. The two lower 
niches have the Perugian bishops SS. Costanzo and 
Ercolano. The inscription running along the foot of the 
pediment is — " Augusta Perusia, MCCCLXI." The door- 
way has, in the tympanum, S. Bernardino in an aureole of 
flame, surrounded by angels, on a long panel, and on two 
panels (beneath the figures in Annunciation) are sculptured 
acts of the saints. On the pillars at the sides of the doors 
the panels have angels in low relief, except on the lower 
ones, on which are figures of Poverty and Chastity to the 
l., and Temperance and Obedience on the r. The angels 
round the central figure, and those on the panels at the 
sides of the door, make music on a variety of instruments. 
The composition expresses joy and praise to. God for 
the life of the saint and for the miracles which he was 
permitted to work for the edification alike of the souls 
and the bodies of men. The virtues round the doorway 
represent the ascetic ideals of S. Francis and his followers, 
of whom S. Bernardino was counted among the stricter 
sort. 

We shall better understand this monument if we com- 
pare it with others in which there was the same inten- 
tion to glorify the divine power as it was manifested in 
the lives of great theologians and teachers. At Assisi, 
over the high altar in S. Francesco, a follower of Giotto 
has painted the Glory of S. Francis, with choirs of angels 
and bearing the cross and a book. The Glory of S. 
Augustine is found at S. Francesco in Pistoia, where the 
saint is seated on a great throne, the dove of the Holy 
Spirit descends on him, doctors of the Church surround 
him, and below are the Seven Virtues and the Seven 



126 PERUGIA 

Liberal Arts. Here it was not so much the ascetic ideal 
which was proclaimed as the cultivation of knowledge 
and virtue by which man attains the goal of life. A 
somewhat similar lesson was taught by the Glory of S. 
Thomas Aquinas at S. Caterina in Pisa, where we see 
how he was inspired both by Holy Writ and Greek learn- 
ing, and how he was thus enabled to bring light into 
dark places by his writings. The facade of S. Bernardino 
illustrates that view of life in which asceticism is the 
moving power in the world. 

It is the ideal of the mendicant that is held iip for 
imitation ; it is by the Franciscan virtues that man is 
supposed to reach the true aim of life. 

S. Bernardino spent his whole life in preaching, and on 
four occasions he came to Perugia. Once in the depth 
of a cold and hard winter he preached for five days, during 
which time the weather was softened so that there was 
neither rain nor cold. It was in 1425 that he made most 
impression ; 3000 persons listened to him in the piazza ; 
no work was done during the time, and debtors were freed 
from the danger of arrest. 

Turning to the acts of the saint we see, below the 
figures of the Annunciation, two scenes, results of the 
preaching of S. Bernardino. In one of them the sheep 
kneel, and behind the preacher there appears on the wall 
the famous monogram with the name of Jesus. 

On the panel below the tympanum there are three 
separate scenes. To the l. is the story of how a child was 
saved from drowning, and to the r. the devil appears 
to a man who has been condemned and cast into prison. 
Satan, however, is cheated of his prey by the saint, who 
appears with the chalice, and saves the unfortunate 
prisoner. In the centre panel between these two scenes 
there is a graphic picture of the burning of vanities. On 
one occasion S. Bernardino preached against the painting 
of the faces of the women, against their false and counter- 
feit hair, and their licentious behaviour ; and in like manner 
against the games, the cards, and the dice of the men, and 




Photograph : A linari 

MADONNA AND CHILD 

By Agostino di Duccio. In the Museo dell' Opera del Duomo, Florence 

Compare with the work of Agostino on S. Bernardino at Perugia 



CHURCHES IN WESTERN DISTRICT 127 

against charms and things of witchcraft. On the Saturday 
he caused all abominable things to be brought into the 
piazza, where a wooden castle was built and filled with 
vanities. On Sunday fire was set to the pile, and the heat 
was so great that no one could come near it. It was the 
memory of some such scene that prompted the design of the 
central panel, where we see the saint preaching, and groups 
of listeners looking on at the burning vanities, out of which 
the devil springs. 

Agostino (1418-1481) is said to have been a pupil of 
Luca della Robbia, but his art has a distinctly personal 
character. He has no sympathy with mediaeval methods, 
nor has he comprehension of the inherent quality of classi- 
cal art. He is moved by the spirit of the Renaissance 
without being touched by that which is essential in Greek 
sculpture. His style has more affinity indeed with Gothic 
models. He has, however, no great respect for tradition 
of any sort, and seems to live and move in a fresh atmos- 
phere, and with new motives. The larger statues in the 
round are not remarkable, but that of S. Bernardino in 
moderate relief has strength and vitality. It is in the 
figures in low relief, and particularly in the angels and 
the Virtues round the door, that we find something new ; 
a style which shows a powerful individuality, an extra- 
ordinary flexibility of mind, a remarkable capacity for 
making swiftness of thought take visible shape. Subtle 
insight is matched by subtle execution. The long, lithe 
figures, with their flowing draperies, exceed the limits 
of gracefulness ; the pose is sometimes forced, and the 
expression is occasionally exaggerated. But there is a 
joyousness in the life and an abandon in the feeling that 
carries us beyond such criticism. It is a picture of as- 
ceticism drawn by one who had no sympathy with it, 
and probably no true idea of what asceticism meant. 
There is no reserve or restraint in the method, and yet by 
some magic of brain and hand we get a true impression. 
The " Poverty " of Agostino is no mean associate for her 
who is wedded to S. Francis at Assisi. 



128 PERUGIA 

S. Francesco al Prato, a church in the pointed style 
which received a Renaissance lining in the eighteenth 
century, is now being restored to its original state. 

In 1277 it is said that the Perugians, rinding that there 
were several of the Order of S. Francis dwelling in their 
city, and desiring to honour that great and glorious saint, 
decided to dedicate to him the ancient building formerly 
called Santa Susanna, a church that had always been much 
frequented by men of the city. 

During the fourteenth century the Franciscans seem to 
have been held in high esteem by their fellow-citizens, and 
the buildings of S. Francesco were frequently used by the 
magistrates as places of meeting while the Palace of the 
Priors was undergoing alterations. 

In 1 310 four of the Padri of S. Francesco, as they are 
called by the chronicler, were chosen for the important 
office of reporting to the Priors the names of those worthy 
of being elected Podesta. They were sent to the various 
towns of Tuscany, Lombardy, and the March, to record the 
names of all those who had dignity and dominion, and who 
were most renowned in arms and in letters. From this 
list of names furnished by the brethren the magistrates 
made their choice of the new Podesta. 

The Frati of the Penitenza of S. Francis, as those were 
called who held the rule of the saint in devotion but did not 
live the conventual life, also received important com- 
missions from the governors of the town. In 131 1, for 
instance, five of the brethren were elected by the Priors 
to collect a special tax laid upon the citizens, and a few 
years later ten were appointed to make a valuation of the 
property of the townfolk. 

The Frati of the Penitenza also took part in the election 
of the Priors, which was often a combination of nomination 
and lot. In 1 331 they were elected to assist the twenty-five 
citizens whose duty it was to make up a fresh list of the 
names of those considered to be eligible for election as 
Priors. 

It was in this church that Fra Egidio, one of the first 



CHURCHES IN WESTERN DISTRICT 129 

followers of S. Francis, was buried , but the sarcophagus 
containing his remains is now in the church attached to the 
University. 

In the crypt there are some frescoes of the school of 
Giotto, representing the Sposalizio, the Death of the 
Virgin, and the Crucifixion. 

It was in this church that the body of Braccio Forte- 
braccio was laid in great state by the Perugians. Forte- 
braccio was killed in 1424, while fighting near Aquila, and 
was buried near Rome. His nephew, Niccolo della Stella, 
a condottiere employed by Eugenius IV., caused the bones 
to be taken up, and to be blessed by the Pope and carried 
to Perugia. 

The citizens were prepared to show the greatest honour 
to their former lord, and the coffin, covered with a blue 
velvet pall, was carried in procession from S. Domenico to 
S. Francesco al Prato. The day was observed as a 
general holiday, and the procession included the consuls of 
the Arts, the Priors, the doctors of the University, escorted 
by forty knights. 



II 

EXCURSIONS FROM PERUGIA 

TODI 

TODI is a small town with less than four thousand in- 
habitants. It stands on the top of a hill between 
1300 and 1400 feet high, overlooking the valley of the 
Tiber ; more than twenty-five miles from Perugia, nearly 
twenty from Spoleto, and rather more than twenty from 
Terni. It may be reached by public motor car from 
Perugia or Terni, in each case in about two and a half 
hours. 

[Todi lay on none of the great roads of ancient times ; it 
has always been distant from any important centre of life ; 
yet when the visitor stands in the piazza facing the Palazzo 
Comunale, the Palazzo dei Priori, and the Palazzo del 
Podesta, with a grand flight of steps leading up to the 
Duomo, he will be amazed at the dignity with which a 
small Italian community could surround itself, and at 
the fine sense of form in which it expressed its ideal 
of social relationships.) Nor will his amazement be 
lessened when he finds three typical churches. The 
Duomo has suffered from restoration but the interior still 
has a fine Romanesque character ; S. Fortunato is an 
example of the pointed style familiar in Italy in the four- 
teenth century ; S. Maria della Consolazione is one of the 
most remarkable churches of the later Renaissance. If, 
in addition, he is fortunate enough to see the sun setting 
down the valley of the Tiber he will understand the charm 
of the dwelling-place of an ancient race set in the beauty 
of Umbrian landscape. Remains of massive walls belong- 

131 



i 3 2 EXCURSIONS FROM PERUGIA 

ing to pre-Roman times still exist in the upper part of the 
town ; coins of Umbrian or Etruscan origin have also been 
found. Belonging to the Roman period, there are frag- 
ments of walls and traces of a theatre, an amphitheatre, of 
baths and mosaic pavements. Several works of art, in- 
cluding a bronze statue of Mars, now in the Vatican, have 
been found. 

During the period of the Barbarian invasions the city 
owed much to the zeal of its Bishop, S. Fortunato (d. 537) ; 
his services are commemorated to this day on the, 30th 
June. 

In the times of the iconoclastic controversy, Gregory II. 
extended the control of the Church over Todi. Her history 
in succeeding ages is mainly concerned with rebellions 
against and submissions to the papal power. In course of 
time the citizens were allowed to elect their own consuls 
and Podesta, and within certain limits to administer their 
own affairs. The people were renowned for their valour, 
and during the thirteenth century they conquered neigh- 
bouring towns, amongst others Terni and Amelia. At the 
end of the thirteenth century and in the beginning of the 
fourteenth, the town fell under the lordship of members 
of the family of the Counts of Basco. 

In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries Todi had 
relationship with most of the forces that made the history 
of the papacy, with Cola di Rienzo, the tribune of Rome, 
with Cardinal Albornoz, who retrieved the power of the 
papacy in Central Italy while the Pope was at Avignon, 
and with sundry condottieri who contrived to serve at 
once themselves and the head of the Church. At one 
time the town played a part in the romantic history of 
Francesca Sforza. Eugenius IV. sold Todi to Sforza for 
a sum of money. Sforza took the territory but did not 
pay the money ; so uncertain, however, was the power of 
the Pope, and so great was the need for the soldier, that 
two years later, in 1434, he was made Vicar- General oi the 
Church. 

The most illustrious name connected with Todi is that 



TODI 133 

of Jacopone da Todi. He was a lawyer and belonged to 
the Benedetti family. The course of his life was changed 
by the accidental death of his wife in 1268 at a wedding 
f east, when she was found to have been wearing a hair shirt 
under her splendid robes. The shock caused Jacopone to 
renounce the world ; he sold his property and for ten 
years he courted every form of indignity that could add 
to his penance. At the end of this time he became a lay 
brother of the Franciscan order. He was a keen Zelanti 
and he was thus led to take part in the struggle against 
Boniface VIII., who in 1298 put him in prison. It is said 
that one day as Boniface was passing the prison he asked 
the poet tauntingly when he intended to come out. 
" When you come in/' was the reply. . Like a true son of 
S. Francis, Jacopone threw all the enthusiasm and vivacity 
of his nature into the poetic expression of deep and tender 
emotion. For his " Laude " he used the vulgar tongue, 
and the forms of popular minstrelsy ; his Latin poetry, in 
which he dwells on the joys and sorrows of the Virgin, is 
more widely known.] 

From the piazza a broad flight of twenty-nine steps leads 
to the platform on which the Duomo is built. The church 
is said to date from the eleventh century, but the facade 
was renewed in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries in 
the pointed manner. The general effect is unusual and 
bald ; there is no gable, not even a cornice to relieve the 
horizontal line of the facade. The building is of fine 
yellow stone with pilasters of red marble. There are 
three doors of pointed design. The central door, in place 
of retreating planes with shafts and mouldings, has broad 
scrolls of foliage springing from a crown of leaves, in a 
fashion recalling the eastern door of the Pisan baptistery 
in some of its detail. The side doors have shafts and 
mouldings with boldly cusped tympanums ; red marble 
is effectively used in the detail. Over the central door is 
an elaborate wheel window. On the l. flank of the build- 
ing and on the apse of one of the choir chapels, which 



134 EXCURSIONS FROM PERUGIA 

has been spared, there is interesting Romanesque 
detail. 

The interior of the Duomo is spacious ; it is in the main 
undisturbed by the alterations which one change of tem- 
perament after another has added to the design. The nave 
arcade is formed of alternate piers and columns ; they are 
nine in number , and they support round arches above 
which an unbroken wall rises to the clerestory. The nave 
capitals are carved with great vigour and freedom. Note 
the wind-blown forms on the second capital to the 

R. 

The piers which alternate with the columns are of 
Renaissance design ; on the flat pilasters facing into the 
nave there are sculptured figures : beginning at the entrance 
to the r., Madonna and Child ; opposite, on the l., a woman 
with a book. 2nd, on the r., S. Peter; opposite, on the l., 
S. Paul. 3rd, on the R., an angel • opposite, on the l., 
Christ with cruciform nimbus. 4th, to the r., S. Michael 
destroying the dragon ; opposite, on the l., Madonna with a 
dove. Out of the r. aisle, a side aisle has been added of 
light pointed construction ; in it is the baptismal font 
resting on lions, with the symbols of the Evangelists on 
the base. The choir is raised above the nave by seven 
steps ; the intarsia of the stalls was executed by Antonio 
Bencevenis in 1530. 

The choir and the added aisle to the r. are roofed with 
groined vaulting ; in the nave and the other aisles the 
vaulting is probably comparatively modern. 

Over the second altar to the l., in the nave, there is a 
fragment of mosaic representing the Trinity, ascribed to Lo 
Spagna. In the choir modern pictures of the Annunciation 
and Coronation have been painted, and on the entrance 
wall a Last Judgment. 

Throughout the building there are frequent surprises 
and striking changes of style, but the general effect is 
harmonious ; the predominant atmosphere of the interior 
is due to the original Romanesque design. 

The Palazzo Communale and the Palazzo dei Priori date 



TODI 135 

from the thirteenth century. These two buildings are con- 
nected by the staircase which leads up to the main en- 
trances. The Palazzo del Podesta was begun in 1293. The 
architectural detail of the three buildings differs consider- 
ably, but each is a magnificent mass of masonry ; the 
windows of the Palazzo Communale are interesting 
specimens of the Italian pointed style. The Piazza of 
Todi ranks with those of Volterra and Pistoia ; it is 
among the finest in Central Italy. 

In some of the rooms of the Palazzo Communale there is a 
collection, mainly of things found in the district : Bucchero 
ware, Etruscan coins, Etruscan soldier in armour, a bronze ' 
boar, Roman coins and pots, mediaeval arms ; proces- 
sional crosses, pastoral staff, crucifix by Giovanni da 
Bologna ; bas-relief, S. John the Baptist, two small statu- 
ettes in the Italo-Byzantine manner ; detached frescoes, 
Madonna and Child, school of Perugino. In a hall down- 
stairs is the Coronation of the Virgin, by Lo Spagna. 
The scene is heaven and set under a baldacchino, be- 
neath kneel a group of mendicants, mitred bishops, 
doctors, etc. The picture is of imposing size, but it is 
lacking in fine character. 

S. Fortunate. — Leave the Piazza by the Via Mazzini to 
the r. of the Palazzo del Podesta ; in a few minutes the 
facade of S. Fortunato is seen at the top of a flight of 
steps, now in a somewhat ruinous condition. The church 
was founded in 1292 and the work was carried on until 
the fifteenth century ; the facade, which is said to have 
been designed by Lorenzo Maitani, remains incomplete 
above the level of the central door. The two side doors 
have round arches with twisted shafts and mouldings. 
The central door is of unusual dignity and elaboration : 
the arch is pointed, the shafts and mouldings are of 
intricate design • they are carved with foliage and putti, 
and on one pilaster on each side there are a number of 
sculptured scenes — on the r., S. Francis receives the 
stigmata, the Sacrifice of Isaac, King David and his Harp, 
etc. ; on the l., the figures are probably those of the 



136 EXCURSIONS FROM PERUGIA 

Apostles. In the mouldings of the arch, there are choirs 
of angels, saints, bishops, etc. 

The Interior is a spacious design in the pointed Italian 
style ; the nave arcade consists of three piers of clustered 
columns from which spring the vaulting arches at the 
clerestory level ; a small choir ends in a pentagonal apse. 
The stalls were carved by Antonio MafTei in 1590. Behind 
the high altar is a large statue of S. Fortunato. In the 
crypt beneath are buried SS. Digna, Romana, Callisto, 
Cassiano, and Fortunato, also the Franciscan poet, Jaco- 
pone da Todi, who died in 1306. 

In the fourth chapel to the r., in the nave, a fragment of 
fresco representing Madonna and Child is ascribed to Fra 
Angelico ; in the sixth chapel to the l. is a highly vener- 
ated Madonna carved in dark wood ; the work is modern. 

The monastery attached to S. Fortunato is now used 
for well equipped schools, elementary and technical. The 
remains of the Rocca are close to S. Fortunato ; from the 
path which leads round the walls there is a magnificent 
view of the valley of the Tiber and the mountainous 
country to the south and west. 

At a considerable distance down the hill and on the 
road by which the town is entered stands the Church of 
S. Maria della Consolazione. The work was begun in 1508 
from the design of Cola di Mateuccio da Caprarola ; in 
15 16 and 1517 Ambrogio da Milano and Francesco de Vito 
Lombardo were carrying on the work ; the cupola was not 
finished till the seventeenth century. The design is 
spoken of as inspired by Bramante \ there is a greater 
certainty that Baldassare Peruzzi gave some assistance. 

The general character of the design is not unlike the 
Church of S. Biagio at Montepulciano, which was begun in 
1518. 

At Todi, however, there is no complication of the design 
from a campanile. The plan is simple : upon a Greek 
cross a cupola is raised and at the end of each arm of the 
cross there is a large apse. The design and its decoration 
are in the severe style which marks the close of the Re- 




Photograph : v Brogi 

DETAIL FROM THE CRUCIFIXION 

(In S. M. Maddalena dei Pazzi, Florence. By Perugino) 
Compare with the fresco' by Perugino at Panicale 



PANIC ALE AND C ITT A DELL A PIEVE 137 

naissance ; there is none of the Barocco exaggeration so 
common in Roman churches. Everywhere there is a 
sense of restraint; a passion for propriety ; it looks as if 
even unimportant detail was admitted only on the highest 
authority ; precedent rules everything ; it is a marvel of 
correct formality. 

The vast interior is striking ; it cannot be called beautiful ; 
the elimination of the human element is too complete. 

On the pendentives are the Evangelists with their 
symbols in garlands of fruit and flowers. One of the 
apses forms the choir with the high altar. In the other 
three apses there are niches with large figures of the 
Apostles. 

Return to the piazza and take the Cor so Cavour ; turn 
down a narrow lane known as the Mercato Vecchio, pass 
the remains of Roman buildings, the ancient forum, and 
four semi-domes with a fine frieze and ancient masonry. 
Below is the Church of S. Ilario, with an open belfry and a 
fine rose window. Over an altar, to the l., a fresco with 
the Mater Misericordia. 



PANICALE AND CITTA BELLA PIEVE 

The rise and decline of the fifteenth-century Umbrian 
school of painters may be seen in the gallery at Perugia. 
But it is otherwise with the art of Perugino himself. The 
student, besides journeying through French museums, must 
visit many Italian churches which lie somewhat out of the 
beaten track, if he would estimate Perugino fairly. 

Panicale and Citta della Pieve have two remarkable 
examples of the master's work, and apart from the artistic 
satisfaction that may be gained, no one will regret the 
journey made to visit them. A pleasant method of reach- 
ing these towns is to drive from Perugia, following at first 
the line of railway in the direction of Terontola, and turn- 
ing aside along the southern shores of Lake Trasimeno. 
Panicale lies above the level of the lake, and during the 



138 EXCURSIONS FROM PERUGIA 

long climb up to the town there are lovely views of the 
lake, with the Umbrian and Tuscan valleys and mountains 
as a background. 

Panicale is no more than a village if we regard its size ; 
but the towers and walls, the gateway through which we 
pass, the paved streets shadowed by high houses, the 
piazza, fountain, and municipal buildings, all remind us 
that in Italy the dignity of life resting directly on ancient 
civilisation does not depend upon a teeming population. 
It was in the Church of S. Sebastiano that Perugino painted 
the martyrdom of the saint. The visitor will do well to 
remain near the door of the church, and not attempt to go 
near the picture. Let him use a good field-glass, and he 
will be able to enjoy the single figure of S. Sebastian, pale 
in colour, hardly relieved indeed from its delicate back- 
ground, and distinguished by simplicity and grace. The 
scene is set in a semicircular portico of Renaissance design. 
There is a most charming air of noonday in summer. It 
is the court of some palace far too magnificent to be 
crowded : a place where life is lived on too great a scale 
to allow of ordinary emotion. S. Sebastian stands bound 
to his pillar, without a trace of personal anxiety. He looks 
upwards with a devout and somewhat melancholy air. 
In an evil moment Perugino has added an uninspired and 
unimaginative design in the pediment above, which is 
without charm of any kind. Fortunately, both this part 
of the picture and the archers below can be cut off from 
the central design, if the spectator is at a sufficient distance. 

Another fresco, attributed to Perugino, and unfor- 
tunately much damaged, is preserved in this church. 
Madonna and Child are attended by four angels making 
music. Two angels float in the air above, holding a crown 
over Madonna's head. Below kneel S. Mary Magdalene 
and a Bishop. 

The road from Panicale to Citta della Pieve leads down a 
steep hill into a valley, where the stream is lined by poplar- 
trees, and where even in the heat of summer there is 
verdure. Several small hill towns are passed, and, as the 



PANICALE AND CITTA BELLA PIEVE 139 

high ground is again reached, views of Lake Trasimeno, 
of Cortona, and of Perugia, appear and disappear as the 
road rises and falls. 

The town of Citta della Pieve stands high above the rail- 
way which passes between Chiusi and Orvieto. It is the 
seat of a Bishop, and the birthplace of Pietro Vannucci 
(Perugino), 1446. In the Duomo there are several pic- 
tures by Perugino, of no great merit. The subjects are : 
Madonna and Child with SS. Peter, Paul, Gervasius, and 
Protasius, behind the choir. To the r. of the choir, 
Madonna and Child on a high throne, with SS. John the 
Evangelist and Peter Martyr and S. John the Baptist and 
another Martyr. In the first chapel to the l., in the nave, 
is the Baptism of Christ. 

The object of a visit to this place is the great fresco by 
Perugino, in Sta. Maria dei Bianchi. It is an immense 
design, twenty-six or twenty-eight feet wide, representing 
the Adoration of the Magi. The picture was painted in 
1504. It is a busy scene. Soldiers and others ride down 
the hills in the background . Shepherds in sentimental pose 
tend their flocks in the middle distance. In the foreground 
the old king kneels before the Child, while an attendant 
holds his crown, and, at some little distance to the r., 
another king of middle age also kneels. These two kings 
are nimbed. The third, a young man, stands behind ; 
he wears a crown over his hat, and has no nimbus. There 
are attendant groups to R. and l., each figure carefully 
placed, and wearing a self-conscious air. 

The picture has been damaged and the gracious effect of 
the colour has to some extent gone, but there is still a flash 
of gold in the detail, and in the far distance there is some 
dream of the Lake of Trasimeno lying between gentle hills, 
on which grow trees that are only seen in Perugino 's 
frescoes. As the traveller drives down among the oak 
woods along the steep road which leads to Chiusi, he will 
count himself fortunate in memories of the celestial land- 
scape which will haunt him long after he has forgotten 
the somewhat feeble drama of the picture. 



Ill 

ASSISI 

INTRODUCTORY NOTE 

THE town of Assisi stands on the slopes of Monte 
Subasio, overlooking the broad valley which is 
drained by the Topino and the Chiagio. To the west lies 
Perugia, to the south-east Spello, Foligno, Trevi, and 
Spoleto. 

The modern town occupies the site of the Roman town 
of Assisum, and there are still remains of the Imperial age 
to be found. The forum, the amphitheatre, and the 
portico of the Temple of Minerva carry us back nearly 
2000 years. 

During the conflict following the downfall of the Western 
Empire, the town suffered in the Gothic wars, and about 
574 it fell into the hands of the Lombards. The Bishopric 
dates from very early times, and in the ninth century the 
Bishop appears to have been the most important personage 
in the town. 

In the eleventh century there are signs of an increasing 
complication in life, a Count of Assisi is mentioned in 1017. 
The monastery of S. Pietro was built in 1029. Under 
Bishop Ugone (1036) the rebuilding of the Duomo was 
undertaken, and in 1041 a Benedictine monastery was 
built on Monte Subasio. 

. In the twelfth century the town put itself in opposition 
to the policy of the Emperor Barbarossa and suffered in 
consequence. In 1177 his army captured the Rocca, 
and Conrad in of Lutzen, Duke of Spoleto, was made Count 
of Assisi. In 1197 the grandson of Barbarossa (afterwards 
Frederick II.), who had been placed under careof Conradin, 

l 141 



142 ASSISI 

was, when three years old, baptised in the Duomo, in the 
presence of fifteen bishops and cardinals. In 1198 Con- 
radin resigned the Duchy of Spoleto to Innocent III., 
the men of Assisi seizing the opportunity to destroy the 
Rocca and to build walls round the town. 

During the centuries which followed, Assisi was generally 
under the influence of her most powerful neighbour, for the 
time being — the Commune of Perugia, the Papal legate, 
the House of Montefeltro, or some soldier of fortune. 

Visitors will notice that the town is proud of Metastasio 
(Pietro Trapassi), the son of an Assisan father, who was 
born in Rome in 1698 and who died in 1782, after achieving 
reputation as a writer of dramas which were set to music 
and became extremely popular. 

But the real source of the importance of the town is, 
that it was the birthplace of S. Francis and that it was 
here that the mendicant revival in Italy took its rise. 
In the church at S* Damiano^ in the Chapel of the Porziun- 
cola, in the cell of the Carceri, we can realise something of 
the simple-minded and self-denying character of S. Francis; 
in the Church of S. Francesco and in the magnificent space 
of S. Maria degli Angeli, we realise the power of a great 
order, one of the mainstays of the mediaeval papacy. 
These places, rendered venerable by their connection with 
the history of the saint, have caused Assisi to become one 
of the chief sanctuaries of the Latin Church. 

The new activity which had begun to work in the minds 
of men in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries found one 
side of its artistic expression in Giotto and his disciples, 
just as its spiritual development is to be seen in S. Francis 
and his brethren. 

This close relationship between the spiritual life of the 
mendicants and the artistic life of the Giotteschi has pro- 
duced in San Francesco a monument, wonderful alike for 
its interpretation of the source of the power which S. 
Francis has over mankind, and for the beauty of its 
expression. 

We find in this one church examples of the beginnings 



THE DUOMO 143 

of native style, in which the native workman followed in 
the steps of Byzantine tradition. We find also how these 
beginnings develop into the two great Tuscan schools of 
Florence and Siena, and we can thus study all the im- 
portant influences which lie at the foundation of Italian art. 
The Temple of Minerva, the Romanesque facade of the 
Duomo, the ruins of the Rocca, the pointed arches of S. 
Francesco, and the dome of S. Maria degli Angeli recall 
the long history and the varied civilisation of this little 
mountain town. It is a picture of the high activities of 
a brilliant race. 

THE DUOMO 

The Cathedral is dedicated in the name of S. Rufino, an 

Umbrian bishop martyred about the year 239. The bones 
of the martyr were carefully preserved by the faithful in an 
ancient pagan sarcophagus, and were not translated until 
the fifth century. They were then removed to the small 
church which stood upon the site of the present Duomo. 

In 1028 Bishop Ugone made use of an outburst of reli- 
gious fervour among the people to replace the old building 
by a new and much larger church. 

Nothing of this construction can now be seen except the 
crypt, which has been lately excavated. It forms an in- 
teresting record of the architecture of the time. There 
are some traces of fresco paintings, and the columns have 
capitals of tenth and eleventh century workmanship. 

During the excavations a wall was uncovered with a 
carved panel of very early date, probably of the eighth 
century. It represents a cross with two doves enclosed in 
a triangle, having bunches of grapes and ivy leaves in the 
corners. The wall itself, it is supposed, forms part of the 
original church erected in the fifth century. 

In the crypt there is also the fine sarcophagus in which 
the body of S. Rufino was preserved until the rebuilding of 
the church in the twelfth century. The relief upon the 
front represents Diana and Endymion. 



144 ASSISI 

Returning again to the Piazza, we see in front of us the 
Facade, which was begun in 1134 under the direction of 
Maestro Giovanni da Gubbio. The church had become 
the cathedral, and was dedicated in the names of S. Rufino 
and of Santa Maria. Nothing except the facade was com- 
pleted at this time, and the rest of the church (partially 
restored during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries) was 
finally transformed into a Renaissance building in 157 1 by 
Alessi, the Perugian architect. The massive Campanile 
was begun in the eleventh century, and was continued, but 
not entirely finished, in the next. Part of the upper con- 
struction is of modern date. 

The Fagade is a good example of Romanesque building 
in the Lombard style. 

The architectural features are not in themselves particu- 
larly striking, yet the effect of the facade and tower is 
venerable and picturesque. The impression of great 
antiquity which the building gives is perhaps due to the 
unusually dark colour of the stone, and the archaic look of 
the sculptures. The effect of the church on the whole is 
rugged and homely, and one can easily understand how it 
should have been regarded for many generations as the 
" Domum," the house of refuge and of consolation. 

The principal features to be noticed are, the three round- 
headed doorways, the row of small columns with a richly 
carved cornice below, and the three beautiful circular 
windows. 

The subject of the sculptures upon the facade is chiefly 
the virtue of the Sacraments of the Church. This subject 
is illustrated not by a series of descriptive or historical 
figures, but by symbols. 

The state of man without grace, and the power of the 
sacraments to save him from sin and death, is shown by 
striking images drawn from the animal world. 

The Central Door. — In the lunette, enclosed in a circular 
aureole, is the figure of Christ, the Ruler of the world, 
seated upon a throne, with the sun and moon on either 
side. He holds the book of the law and points to His 



THE DUOMO 145 

mother, as though indicating the way of salvation, by 
means of the Incarnation. On the r. stands the martyr 
Bishop Rufino. The three small heads between the 
principal figures are supposed to represent the three other 
martyr saints whose relics are preserved, in the Duomo, 
namely, S. Cessidus, the son of Rufino, and the two deacons 
Marcellus and Exuperantius. These three were all put to 
death during the persecutions which were carried on in 
Umbria in the reign of Diocletian. 

Turning now to the mouldings round this doorway. 
The most important one is rounded and has figures in high 
relief. The lower part, on the jambs of the door, is covered 
with animals, tearing, rending, and devouring one another. 
These are types of man in his fallen and unregenerate 
state, a prey to his passions. The same moulding carried 
round the arch over the door has eight groups of small 
figures, which cannot be easily distinguished. A crowned 
woman on a throne, on the l. side, probably represents 
the Church. The baptism of a child and of an adult 
signify the means of grace. 

The flat mouldings have designs of a conventionalised 
vine plant, with small figures of men gathering the fruit and 
birds eating the grapes. These designs represent allegori- 
cally the life of the Christian in the Church, nourished by 
its sacraments. 

Such a theme is frequently illustrated upon the mould- 
ings of Romanesque doorways. Attention should be given 
to the various details, and a comparison made between 
different examples. 

The Side Doorways. — In the lunettes are two striking 
images of the mysteries of the Christian faith. Above the 
door to the r. two peacocks drink from a large vase, and 
above the door to the l. two lions in a similar fashion are 
placed on either side of a great vessel. 

Such a design, in which animals stand upon either side of 
some sacred object, as, for instance, a tree or an altar, is a 
common means of expressing devotion or worship. Tt 
exists in the art of many ancient races. 



146 ASS1SI 

The sculptures over the doorways at Assisi illustrate the 
efficacy of the sacraments of Baptism and of the Eucharist. 
The large vessel is a figure, not only of the font, but also 
*oi the chalice. The lion signifies the fortitude which the 
Christian derives from these sources of purification and life. 
The peacock, because of the supposed incorruptibility of its 
flesh, is an emblem of the gift of immortal life received 
through the Christian sacraments. 

The Lintels. — In the centre of each lintel is the Lamb, 
the " Agnus Dei," supported (on the r. door) by the four 
symbols of the Evangelists ; (on the l.) by two eagles with 
outspread wings. The eagle, on account of its soaring 
flight and its power of looking at the sun, was used as a 
figure of the soul in contemplation. 

On the jambs of the doors and round the lunette are 
symbols representing the Christian in the midst of tempta- 
tions. The cross has the central position in the half circle. 
At the sides of the door are emblems of the baptised soul, 
the fish, the stag, and the dove, combined with symbolical 
figures of the devil represented as a dragon and as a two- 
headed monster. 

The animals, sculptured in the round, and placed at the 
sides of the doorways as guardians are one of the charac- 
teristic features of Romanesque buildings. 

Those at the side doors are much destroyed, and can no 
longer be recognised. Those at the central door are excel- 
lent examples of lions as they were commonly represented 
by the sculptors of the eleventh and twelfth centuries. 
Such guardian animals, whether griffins or lions, signify 
the office of the Church in its twofold capacity of protecting 
the humble and punishing the proud. It will be noticed 
that, as a general rule, the animal on the l. punishes while 
the one on the r. protects. Here the lion on the l. devours 
a man who is perhaps intended to represent a soldier, the 
usual emblem of heretical pride. The lion on the r. 
protects a sheep, which lies peacefully between the fore- 
feet of the guardian. The sheep is the type of the humble 
Christian. 




Photograph : J. W. Cruickshank 

MADONNA AND CHILD 

(From S. Michele, Pavia) 

Compare with the Sculpture over the central door of the Duomo at Assisi 



THE DUOMO 147 

The Sculptured Cornice, underneath the colonnade, has 
a number of fantastic-looking animals, frequently described 
as " grotesques." 

When examined, however, they are found to be of the 
same character as the other parts of the decoration. They 
are illustrations of familiar legends, or symbols of some 
abstract quality. 

Immediately above the central door, for instance, are 
two small winged dragons placed back to back, and 
hemmed in by two stags that attack them on either side. 
The stag was said to be the great enemy of dragons and 
serpents, killing them whenever it could. The stag or 
hart, on the authority of Scripture (Ps. xlii.), was an em- 
blem of the Christian thirsting after righteousness. Hence 
an image of a stag destroying a serpent suggested to the 
mind the Christian turning against his vices and destroying 
them. (A fine illustration of the subject will be found on 
the Church of S. Pietro, Spoleto.) 

To the r. of these stags, on the cornice, are several pairs 
of animals drinking from a vase. These figures repeat 
the allusion to the sacraments expressed in the lunettes 
above the side doors. The animals here, however, are 
dragons and other monsters, emblems not of the true be- 
liever, but of those who are living in mortal sin and yet dare 
to remain in the Church. 

The Round Windows. — The symbols of the four Evan- 
gelists are placed round about the central window, and 
below are the figures of three men who appear to sustain 
the weight of the circle. 

The window may be intended to stand for the 
globe of the world, and the three men perhaps 
indicate the three parts of the earth, Europe, Asia, 
and Africa. 

The round window to the l. has a little figure of the 
Archangel Michael in the centre. On the outside of the 
circle, on the wall, are two statues probably representing 
S. Peter and S. Paul. 

(A more detailed study of the figures upon the facade 



148 ASSISI 

will be found in Canon Elisei's " Studio sulla Cathedrale," 
Assist 1893.) 

The Interior. — Close to the entrance is the round font in 
which the citizens of Assisi for many generations have been 
baptised, including S. Francis, Sta. Chiara, and her sister 
Agnes. Here also, in 1197, the Emperor Frederick II. 
received baptism when three years of age. He was living 
at that time under the charge of his tutor, Conrad of 
Swabia, Duke of Spoleto. 

In the nave, in front of the bishop's throne, is a triptych 
by Niccolo da Foligno (living between 1430-1502), a pupil 
of Benozzo Gozzoli. It represents the Virgin and Child 
with four saints. The first to the r. is S. Rufino, the 
bishop, beside him is the martyr Exuperantius. On the 
l. stands S. Pietro Damiano, who wrote the life of S. 
Rufino. He holds a book, and his neighbour, the deacon 
Marcellus, presents an inkpot to the author, having in his 
other hand a scroll with the first words of the Gospel of 
John. This scroll is significant of one of the duties of the 
deacon's office as reader of the Scriptures. The figures of 
the saints are grave and dignified, and there are no trifling 
accessories or studies of still life introduced to disturb the 
character of the picture. The Predella has the story of 
the martyrdom of the patron saint in three scenes. In the 
first we see the holy man subjected to the flames, but 
remaining uninjured. He was then thrown into the river 
Chiagio and drowned. It is said that when the body was 
recovered a lily sprang from the mouth and described how 
the martyr had died. The third scene represents the 
translation of the body into the city. 

The relics of the saint are preserved in a black marble 
urn made in 1850. The choir stalls, ornamented with 
intarsiatura, were executed in 1520 by Giovanni da S. 
Severino. 



MONUMENTS OF LIFE OF S. FRANCIS 149 

MONUMENTS CONNECTED WITH THE 
LIFE OF S. FRANCIS 

S. Francis, Frate Elias, and the Church of 
S. Francesco 

Francis was born in n 82. In the year 1202 he was 
captured during a war with the Perugians, and remained 
in prison until 1203. A grave illness interrupted his usual 
careless life as one of the rich youths of Assisi, and led to 
the awakening of the serious side of his nature. Stories 
are told of how he gave the rich accoutrements prepared 
for his own adventures to a poor knight, how also he be- 
friended lepers by personal service. But it was in the year 
1206 that his vision before the Crucifix in S. Damiano 
fully awakened his spirit and gave him the sense of mys- 
tical union with Divine Light, which never afterwards 
failed him. The change brought differences between 
father and son to a head. There was no halting between 
two opinions, " henceforth I only say our Father in 
heaven." In the spring of 1209 while hearing Mass at the 
Porziuncola the words in Matt. x. came as a direct message : 
" Go ye, preach, saying, The Kingdom of heaven is at 
hand . . . provide neither gold nor silver . . . nor scrip 
for your journey." Next year Francis with twelve 
disciples presented their rule to Pope Innocent III. ; the 
rule has not been preserved, but M. Sabatier describes it 
as a spontaneous and inspired appeal to the heart, short 
in form and written in the language of the Gospel. The 
brethren became preachers in all parts of the world, and 
in 1218-1220 Francis was in Egypt in hope of converting 
the Sultan. 

His return was followed by one of the crises in his life. 
The success of the Brethren brought with it an ever- 
increasing pressure from the world and a sorrowful burden 
to the spirit of Francis. The sadness of his heart did not 
impair the clearness of his mind ; he knew that the policy 
of a great organisation had nothing in common with the 



150 ASSIST. 

life of the mystic, and as in the early days he renounced 
the claim of family, so now he laid down the generalship 
of the order. At the chapter held in September 1220, 
prostrating himself in holy obedience before the brother 
who was to succeed him, he raised his hands in prayer, 
saying, " I have neither the strength nor the qualities to 
continue the care of them," i.e. the brethren. Four years 
later at La Verna he entered into the fruition of mystical 
life sealed for him by the sign of the stigmata. A year 
later, suffering from partial blindness, he spent some weeks 
at S. Damiano and there once more the natural spontaneity 
and joyousness of his soul broke forth in the " Canticle to 
the Sun." His generous disposition was perfected by a life 
of self-abnegation, by a ruthless determination to discard- 
the lower purposes of life for the higher, and thus there 
emerged perhaps the most characteristic and striking 
personality of the Middle Ages. His personality offers a 
solution of the most difficult questions that men must still 
try to answer for themselves, although it may be as Pope 
Innocent said, that " the life appears too difficult." Amid 
all the great names that crowd the record of his time, the 
spirit of S. Francis slowly clearing itself from the trammels 
of the accidental and the transitory still shows a clear 
light to mankind. 

Francis died on the 4th October 1226 ; he was canonised 
in 1228 and already land had been given for the building 
of a church in which he might be buried. It is uncertain 
who was the architect of S. Francesco, the names of 
Jacopo Tedesco, FraFilippo di Campello, and Fra Giovanni 
della Penna have been suggested, but whoever the archi- 
tect may have been, Frate Elias was the ruling spirit. 

It has been said that twelve disciples went with Francis 
to Rome in 12 10. The name of Elias does not occur in 
any of the lists of those early brethren, although it 
has been supposed that he had been the companion of 
Francis in his spiritual exercises, before the vision at S. 
Damiano ; however that may have been this disciple was 
destined to play a leading part in the future of the order. 



MONUMENTS OF LIFE OF S. FRANCIS 1,51 

Francis and Elias, although closely united, were men of 
different habit. Francis saw all created things in the glow of 
a spiritualised imagination, Elias saw the same vision in the 
light of a logical mind trained in worldly affairs ; Francis 
appealed as a poet, as the " Jongleur " of God, directly 
to the hearts of men, Elias found perfection in an organised 
institution ; Francis drew men to him by the beauty of 
his mystical nature, by sincerity of feeling, Elias aimed at 
ordering the minds of men so that their consciousness 
should be expressed in custom, order, and a willingness 
to submit to authority. Each of them found the true 
means in mendicancy. For the one the rule of poverty, 
chastity, and obedience led to that holy simplicity which 
found divine beauty everywhere ; for the other the same 
rule was the root of that influence over men which gave 
the right and the power to enforce authority, stamped with 
divine significance even in its human manifestation. 
This difference in point of view led, particularly after the 
death of Francis, to dissension. Pope Gregory IX. in 
1230 decided against the brethren who sought to follow 
strictly the rule of the founder. In 1232 Frate Elias 
became general of the order., and even after his deposition 
in 1239 he is said to have continued to control the building 
of S. Francesco. It cannot be said that the work repre- 
sented the romance of the human spirit as men saw it in 
the life of S. Francis ; it was rather a realisation of the 
worldly aspect of the order. Throughout the hundred 
years or more in which the building was perfected the 
changes in artistic method served to add point to the 
general conception out of which arose the vast epic of 
mendicancy. The life of Christ as the exemplar of human 
life, and the conformity of the life of Francis with the life 
of Christ, such was the idea that brought harmony into 
the work of so many men and so many schools. 

The buildings of S. Francesco are on three levels : on 
the lowest is the crypt in which S. Francis was buried ; 
above that is the lower church, and above the lower is 
the upper church. It has been thought that the original 



152 ASSIST 

plan included both lower and upper churches, but it is 
probable that the building of the lower church was at first 
limited to the choir, to short arms of the transept and three 
bays of the nave. The campanile was finished in 1238 
(or earlier), when a bell was hung bearing the names of the 
Caesar Frederick, the Pope Gregory, and the General 
Elias. The fourth bay of the nave (now part of the 
atrium) was added, and later still the bays to the r. and l., 
which together with the fourth bay form the atrium as 
we now see it. The building of the upper church pro- 
ceeded slowly until the coming of Innocent IV. to Assisi 
in 1253, when he consecrated the basilica. He desired 
that the church should be speedily finished and permitted 
Fra Filippo di Campello to receive gifts for the purpose. 
The completion of the upper church has been assigned to 
about the time when S. Bonaventura became general of 
the order, i.e. in about 1257. The next impulse to the 
work came from Fra Girolamo Mascio of Ascoli who was 
general (12 74-1 2 79), and who became Pope as Nicholas IV. 
(1288-1294) ; in his time and in the succeeding years at the 
end of the thirteenth century and in the beginning of the 
fourteenth century side chapels were added to the lower 
church, the walls were decorated with marble and much 
fresco painting was done. The Chapel of S. Martino is 
connected with the name of Cardinal Gentile Partino di 
Montefiori, who died in 131 2 ; the Chapel of S. Mary 
Magdalene is associated with Tebaldo of Todi, Bishop of 
Assisi, 1 3 14-132 9 ; the Chapel of S. Nicholas with Cardinal 
Gian Gaetano Orsini, d. 1339 ; the Chapel of S. Catherine 
or del Crocefisso is supposed to have been founded by 
Cardinal Albornoz, who was buried there (d. 1367). Thus by 
the middle of the fourteenth century the pile had assumed 
its present appearance ; its decoration was complete and 
the only noteworthy additions were due to the influence 
of the Franciscan Pope Sixtus IV. To his time the burial 
cloister (1478) is attributed, and a few years later the pre- 
sent entrance to the lower church (1487) and the small 
Oratory of S. Bernardino opposite to it (1488) were added. 



MONUMENTS OF LIFE OF S. FRANCIS 153 

In the building of S. Francesco, Frate Elias adopted the • 
pointed style of architecture, such as the Cistercians were 
using for their churches, although with many modifications. 
In the lower church the builder is casting the new forms 
into the mould of Romanesque habit, but in the upper 
church there is a frank acceptance of the new French 
spirit. 

The earliest paintings are those on the nave walls of the 
lower church, attributed to Giunta Pisano, dating probably 
from about 1236. After the deposition of Frate Elias in 
1239 a number of generals chosen from the more zealous 
brethren succeeded. They represented the objection of 
S. Francis to great and magnificent buildings, and even 
S. Bonaventura (general, 1257-1274) was opposed to any- 
thing that could offend against the rule of Holy Poverty. 
This tendency of the zealous brethren was felt in the slow 
progress of the upper church, and it is probable that the 
frescoes on its walls were not painted until long after its 
completion, probably not until towards the end of the 
thirteenth century. No written evidence has yet been 
found as to the authorship or date of the older frescoes in 
the upper church ; they have been attributed to Cimabue, 
to Gavallini, to Rusutti, and others ; they are the work of 
several hands, and but for their bad condition they would 
be the finest examples of painting preceding the changes 
wrought by Duccio, Simone Martini, and Giotto. To 
these men is due the impulse that produced the series of 
the life of S. Francis in the upper church and the four- 
teenth-century art in the transepts and chapels of the 
lower church. The encyclopaedic habit of the schoolmen 
which prompted them to write huge dictionaries of 
universal knowledge reacted on the plans of fresco paint- 
ing ; to philosophical and theological activities there were 
added the virtues of the terrestrial life, and the poignancy 
of individual experience : thus the frescoes of S. Francesco 
become a picture of mediaeval life. 



154 ASSISI 

The Significance of the Pictures in S. Francesco 

The purpose of the frescoes in the upper and lower 
churches may be most easily understood if they are taken 
in the following order : — 

I. In the nave , choir, and transepts of the upper church, the 
frescoes deal with the general relation between God and 
man, as set forth in Scripture. 

II. In the right and left transepts of the lower church there 
is the history of the Incarnation and Resurrection. 

III. In the chapels of the lower church, the Acts of S. 
Mary Magdalene, S. Stephen, S. Lawrence, S. Catherine, 
S. Nicholas, and S. Martin are described. 

IV. The Franciscan ideal is painted over the high altar of 
the lower church, and the Acts of S. Francis in the nave of 
the upper church. 

I. The system of frescoes throughout the upper church. 

— Apart from the Franciscan pictures the series in the 
upper church gives a complete history of the world in its 
relation to man. The scenes of Creation are followed by 
the history of the Fall and the story of the Patriarchs (on 
the r. wall of the nave). Opposite to these frescoes is an 
account of the Incarnation (on the l. wall of the nave), 
which finds it completion in the Life and Death of the 
Virgin and her Coronation in Heaven (in the choir). The 
Gospel of the Incarnation was preached by the Apostles 
(southern transept), it was recorded by the Evangelists 
(vault), and taught by the Doctors (vault). The whole is 
brought to a conclusion in the Vision of the End of the 
World (northern transept), where on the one hand the 
prayers of the saints are offered up before the Throne, and 
on the other there is depicted the Fall of Babylon, typical 
of the fate of sinners. 

The disposition of scenes from the Old and New Testa- 
ments in relation to each other, such as we find in the nave 
of the upper church, is common in mediaeval thought. 
The law written by the finger of God is a foreshadowing of 



MONUMENTS OF LIFE OF S. FRANCIS 155 

the Gospel. The men of the thirteenth and fourteenth 
centuries did not regard the history of the world as divided 
into " ancient " and " modern " ; they had a stronger 
sense of historical continuity than we have, and the change 
from the old to the new was no more than a passing from 
the type to its realisation. S. Augustine, speaking of the 
Old Testament, says : " In every page, while I pursue my 
search as a son of Adam in the sweat of my brow, Christ 
either openly or covertly meets me and refreshes me." 
Christ was killed in Abel ; He was mocked in Noah ; He 
was sacrificed in Isaac ; He was made a servant in Jacob ; 
He was sold in Joseph. 

The Old and the New Testaments, the writings of the 
Prophets, Apostles, and Evangelists, the unveiling of the 
Vision, and the teaching of the Doctors, all had one end — 
they are the record of Faith (Par. xxiv. 91-96), they en- 
courage our Hope (Par. xxv. 88-90), they animate our 
Love (Par. xxvi. 25-27). We realise the purpose of the 
design of the upper church as a whole in Dante's saying, 
that his belief in God comes through Moses, through the 
Prophets and Psalms, through the Gospel and the writings 
of the Apostles (Par. xxiv. 130-138). 

II. In the transepts of the lower church we find the 
history of the life of Christ. These paintings may be 
regarded as an illustration of the Creed. No. 1 (Plan 
VIII.) shows the Conception by the Holy Ghost. Nos. 2, 
3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 (Plan VIII.), figure the various scenes con- 
nected with the Nativity. Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 
(Plan IX.), deal with the Suffering under Pontius Pilate. 
No. 7 represents the Crucifixion, No. n the Descent into 
Hell, and No. 10 the Resurrection on the third day. 

Dante (Par. vii. 79-120), writing perhaps a few years 
later than the time when these frescoes were painted, ex- 
plains how the Incarnation was the highest manifestation 
of the justice and mercy of God. Man had been dis- 
franchised by sin. In two ways it was possible that his 
lost dignity might be recovered. God might grant a free 
pardon, or man could make satisfaction. But, in the first 



156 ASSISI 

case, justice would not have been done, for goodness would 
not have been made to refill that which sin had emptied. 
In the second, it was impossible for man to make satis- 
faction, inasmuch as he could never fall so low in humility 
as he had striven to rise in pride. The Incarnation answers 
all the ends of justice, for goodness takes the place of evil. 
It also is the highest evidence of mercy, for in no other 
way could God so fully show His love as by giving Himself, 
so that in His person man might make satisfaction. 

It was the loving self-sacrifice, the poverty, the renuncia- 
tion, the suffering, and the submission to the Divine will 
exhibited in this life, that S. Francis tried J;o make the rule 
of his own life. 

III. The chapels of the lower church have been covered 
with paintings setting forth the acts of S. Mary Magdalene, 
S. Stephen, S. Lawrence, S. Catherine, S. Nicholas, and S. 
Martin, all of them examples of the Franciscan virtues. 

The mediaeval history of S. Mary Magdalene is confused 
with that of Mary, the sister of Lazarus, and with various 
legends. She remains, however, the great example of the 
efficacy of contrition, confession, and penance. 

S. Stephen was probably honoured, not only as the first 
martyr, but as one of the first deacons, to whom the care of 
the poor was confided by the early Church. 

S. Lawrence, also a deacon, gave all the treasure that 
had fallen into the hands of the Church to the poor, whom 
he sought out night and day. When the treasure was 
demanded of him, he presented the poor people, saying, 
" These be the eternal treasure ; the hands of these have 
borne the treasure of heaven." 

S. Catherine of Alexandria, though she was born queen 
of her country and was instructed in all liberal arts, de- 
spised the things of this life and gave herself wholly to the 
Lord Jesus Christ, and so she was mystically united in 
marriage to Him, even as S. Francis was united to Holy 
Poverty. 

S. Nicholas, according to legend, fasted even as an infant, 
and when he inherited his father's wealth he gave it away. 



MONUMENTS OF LIFE OF S. FRANCIS 157 

S. Martin, as a youth, renounced the world, and even 
before he left the service of the Emperor his charity moved 
him to share his cloak with a beggar. He renounced not 
only the world but all its allurements, so that when straw 
was laid for his bed he threw it away and slept on the 
ground. 

These men and women were moved by a humility that 
knew no shame except in the presence of a humility deeper 
than their own, by a love of their neighbours without any 
limit, especially for the poor and the sick, by a love of 
God that made submission to His will the highest joy. 

IV. The distinctively Franciscan pictures consist 
mainly of the four great frescoes over the high altar in the 
lower church, and of the series representing the life of S. 
Francis in the nave of the upper church. 

Besides these, there are some unimportant pictures in 
v the Chapel of S. Anthony of Padua, and the almost in- 
visible pictures in the nave of the lower church. 

The Ideal of S. Francis 

The frescoes over the high altar in the lower church, 
representing Poverty, Chastity, and Obedience, express the 
ideal of S. Francis. The fourth fresco of the glorification 
of the saint, represents the Divine recognition of this ideal. 

The imitation of the life of Christ, which was the aim of 
S. Francis, does not differ from the nominal aim of all 
Christians before his time and since. His distinction lies 
in the method of reaching it, and in the single-minded 
devotion with which the method was followed. 

S. Francis saw in the sojourn of Christ on earth an ideal 
which he described as Holy Poverty. It is in the exercise 
of this, and not in formal faith and ceremonial observance, 
that the true relations of life become clear. When it is no 
longer possible to covet, when life ceases to be a struggle 
for material prosperity, and when pre-eminence means the 
most absolute humility, it becomes natural that love 
should grow between man and man. 

M 



158 ASS1SI 

The ideal of Holy Poverty implies more than a scheme of 
living without ownership of property. It is an ideal in 
which a man gives up not only lands and houses, he must 
also make the sacrifice of all material desires. More than 
that, he must give up the exercise of his intellect and his 
will, in the serise that they ought to be used only in sub- 
mission to the will of another. 

Spiritual freedom is gained when that which we have is 
" prepared by Divine Providence, as is manifest in the 
bread received in alms," when we have divested the mind 
of all material desires by the exercise of holy chastity, and 
when we have submitted the intellect and the will to the 
guidance of another in holy obedience. 

When body and soul alike have been emptied of self, then 
may be reached that state of contemplation which is the 
mediaeval ideal of beatitude. In this condition man can 
perceive something of the truth. regarding the Divine attri- 
butes, and from this there proceeds the love of God. He 
can also perceive the Divine order in Creation, so that all 
nature is included in the love of one who has reached the 
power of contemplation through the exercise of Holy 
Poverty. 

The life of S. Francis is painted in the nave of the upper 
church. This series of frescoes is a summing up of the 
intention of the whole monument. We have seen how 
God deals with men ; we have seen the description of the 
life of Christ, by means of which men entered into their true 
relation with the Divine ; we have seen how by lives of 
faith, of renunciation, and of love, men have striven to 
unite the world in the new ideal. The final result of human 
effort is summed up in the life of S. Francis, who was, in 
the words of his disciples, the Mirror of Perfection. 

It must be confessed that we see " the little poor Man of 
Assisi " dimly in the magnificence of this building. These 
pictures describe the outward and visible life of one of the 
two princes ordained for the guidance of the Church {Par. 
xi. 35-36). We seem to breathe the air of the papal court 
rather than that of the Umbrian valleys. 



MONUMENTS OF LIFE OF S. FRANCIS 159 



Conformity of the Life of S. Francis with 
that of Christ 

His disciples regarded the life of S. Francis as the most 
complete reflection, that we have been permitted to know, 
of the life which Christ led upon earth. The following in- 
stances where the parallel has been drawn may be noted ; 
others will occur to those who keep this phase of the 
Franciscan ideal in mind. 

1. Above the entrance door of the lower church the arches 
are filled with panels. On one is carved the Ascension of 
Christ with a group of disciples below, on. the other there is 
the Ascension of S. Francis with a like group of disciples. 

2. The pictures on the nave walls of the lower church 
were probably intended to point to the parallel between 
the two lives. On the r. as we face the high altar there 
appear to be scenes from the Crucifixion, the Deposition, 
and the Entombment of Christ. On the l. S. Francis 
renounces the world ; is seen in a vision supporting the 
Church ; preaches to the birds ; receives the stigmata ; 
and is buried. 

3. In the left transept of the lower church the Cruci- 
fixion has opposite to it S. Francis receiving the 
stigmata, the intention being to suggest the parallel 
between the Passion of Christ and the passion of S. Francis 
on Monte della Vernia. 

4. In the central group on the roof of the upper church 
Christ is painted with S. Francis opposite, and at the sides 
are Madonna and S. John the Baptist. 

: 5. The lower church had originally only three altars : 
the high altar dedicated in the name of S. Francis, whose 
bones rest beneath it ; that to the r., in the southern 
transept, dedicated in the name of Maria Virgine Immaco- 
lata, and that to the l. in the name of S. John the Evan- 
gelist. If the church be considered as the cross, then 
the relative position of the altars suggests that S. Francis 



160 ASSISI 

takes the place of Christ, while Madonna and S. John the 
Evangelist stand at the foot of the cross as usual. 

6. Over the high altar in the lower church Christ presides 
over the marriage of S. Francis with the Holy Lady 
Poverty. Poverty, the spouse of Christ, was widowed at 
His death on the cross, and now she becomes the spouse 
of S. Francis. 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO. 
The Lower Church 

The visitor enters the lower church by the doorway 
of 1478 (XL on Plan II.). On the vault of the arch over- 
head there is a worthless picture of S. Francis in Glory. 
The significant part of the legend attached to it may be 
rendered : " Stay thy steps to rejoice, traveller. Now 
thou draw est near to the hill of Paradise. This is the 
glorious Basilica dedicated to the divine Francis of Assisi, 
the restorer of the falling Church of Christ." 

The plan of the lower church is complicated, and the 
traveller will save time if he studies the ground plan before 
he begins to examine the detail. 

Passing into the nave, the first chapel to the l. is that 
of S. Martin (XIII. on Plan II.). The first to the r>, 
that of S. Louis the King, or S. Stephen (VIII. on the 
plan). The second chapel to the l. is that of S. Peter 
of Alcantara (XIV. on the plan). The second chapel 
to the R. is that of S. Anthony of Padua (VII. on the 
plan). The pulpit (XV. on the plan) occupies the next 
bay to the l. The third chapel to the r. is that of S. 
Mary Magdalene (VI. on the plan). 

We next pass into the transepts, in the centre of which 
(I. on the plan) stands the high altar. Turning to the 
r. into the r. transept there is the altar originally dedi- 
cated to Maria Virgine Immacolata (II. on the plan). 
Behind it five of the first disciples of S. Francis are buried. 
The right transept is closed by the Chapel of S. Nicholas 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 161 

or the Chapel < of the Holy Sacrament (V. on the 
plan). Returning to the high altar, pass into the left 




Plan II. — Ground Plan of the Lower Church of 
San Francesco, Assisi 



transept, where there is the altar originally dedicated 



1 6 2 ASSISI 

to S. John the Evangelist (III. on the plan). Behind it 
are buried five of the early disciples. Near to this altar 
is the entrance to the sacristy , and the stair which leads 
to the upper church. 

In the following description, the visitor is supposed to 
begin with the monuments on the r. wall of the atrium : 
pass through the chapels of the r. nave, pass round the 
r. transept, under the vault, through the l. transept 
to the sacristies, down the l. nave to the Chapel of S. 
Martin. Return up the centre nave to see the frescoes, 
and if desired descend to the crypt. Pass through the 
l. transept and ascend by the stairway to the upper church. 

The Atrium.— On entering turn to the r. The first monu- 
ment is supposed to be one erected by the Florentine 
family of the Cerchi. The sarcophagus is supported by 
five richly carved corbels, the front is decorated with 
interlaced arcading of elaborate design, the. shields bear 
three rings. Above, a cusped and crocketed canopy is 
carried by twisted shafts ; the vase which stands on the 
tomb is said to have been filled with gold and silver and 
sent as an offering by the Queen of Cyprus. The date 
attributed to the monument by Sig. Venturi is the last 
half of the thirteenth century. Beyond there is a large 
platform pulpit. Next to this is the monument which 
has been generally supposed to be that of the Queen of 
Cyprus, others think it is the tomb of Jolande, wife of 
Frederick II., who died in 1228. The design is assigned 
by Sig. Venturi to the fourteenth century. In the upper 
part under the canopy are the sculptured figures of Madonna 
and Child and a woman standing on a lion ; the general 
effect is not pleasing. Beyond is the Chapel of S. Antonio 
Abbate with the tombs of a Duke of Spoleto and his son. 

The cloister used as the burial-place for the brethren 
is entered from the chapel ; in the centre are tall cypress- 
trees. The cloister has two stories, the lower with circular 
arches springing from octagonal brick piers ; it dates from 
1478. 

At the end of the atrium is the 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 163 



Chapel of S. Catherine or Cappella del 
Crocefisso 

This chapel is the burial-place of Cardinal Egidio 




Plan III. — Chapel of S. Catherine, Lower Church of 
San Francesco, Assisi 



Albornoz, who died in 1367. The frescoes are in very bad 
condition. 

(Plan III.) No. 97. Probably refers to the story of 



1 64 , ASSTSI 

how S. Catherine was led to go out from Alexandria into 
the desert, and was there mystically married to Christ. 

No. 98. When the Emperor Maxentius came to Alex- 
andria Christians were condemned to death. S. Catherine 
appeared before the Emperor and argued with him. He 
sent for wise men to convince Catherine, and she con- 
verted them to Christianity. 

No. 99. The wise men are condemned Abound, and 
cast into the fire. 

No. 100. S. Catherine cast into prison. The Queen 
and Porphyry visit her, and are converted. 

No. 101. The Emperor found that Catherine had 
suffered nothing from starvation while in prison, and in his 
wrath he ordered two wheels to be made so that they 
should break all that came between. S. Catherine prayed 
to God, and an angel destroyed the' wheels. 

No. 102. The Queen upbraids the Emperor, and declares 
herself a Christian. 

No. 103. The Queen is tortured and beheaded. 

No. 104. S. Catherine is beheaded. 

No. 105. Bishops Blasius, Eugenius ; and S. Louis. 

No. 106. S. Francis and two uncertain figures ; one of 
them is supposed to represent the consecration of Cardinal 
Albornoz. 

The figures in the windows have not been fully identified. 

The central lights contain Madonna and Child, S. Cathe- 
rine, SS. Agnes and Lucy, and S. Francis and Sta. Chiara. 

The frescoes in this chapel were painted by Andrea da 
Bologna and Pace di Bartolo of Assisi. 

Enter the nave and turn to the R. into the 

Chapel of S. Louis the King or of S. Stephen 

The frescoes on the walls of this chapel are attributed to 
Dono Doni, 1574-1575. They are of no artistic interest. 
The frescoes on the roof have been attributed to LTngegno. 

(Plan IV.) No. 94. The Condemnation of S. Stephen. 

No. 95. S. Stephen led away to be stoned. 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 



165 



No. 96. The Stoning. 

On the roof, the Prophets and Sibyls are associated in 
prophesying of Christ. 




Plan IV. — Chapel of S. Louis the King, Lower 
Church of San Francesco, Assisi 



No. 90 (over the window). Daniel ix. 24. The prophecy 
referred to is that concerning the seventy weeks. The 
Sibyl prophesies the birth from a Virgin. 

No. 91 (over the entrance arch). Jeremiah xxxi. 22 — 
" The Lord hath created a new thing in the earth." 
Sibyl Tiburtina — " Christ horn in Bethlehem." 



166 ASSISI 

No. 92. Micah v. 2 — " But thou, Bethlehem Ephratah, 
though thou be little among the thousands of Judah." 
Sibyl Persica — " The invisible word is seen and touched." 

No. 93. Psalm xvi. 10 — " Neither wilt Thou suffer Thy 
Holy One to see corruption." Cumean Sibyl — " After 
having been in the tomb for three days He will arise." 

The window has four lights. To the l. — 

1. The Angel of S. Matthew, S. Louis the Archbishop, 
S. Louis the King. 

2. The Eagle of S. John, Christ in blessing, S. Franeis. 

3. The Ox of S. Luke, the Virgin Crowned, Franciscan 
Saint (?). 

4. The Lion of S. Mark, a Queen. 

This chapel was founded by Cardinal Gentile da Monte- 
fiore (also the founder of the Chapel of S. Martin on the 
opposite side of the nave), who was buried here in 131 2. 

Between the chapels of S. Anthony and S. Stephen 
there is a picture of the Martyrdom of S. Lawrence, with 
S. John the Baptist, and the Bishops Rufinus and Victor. 

Chapel of S. Anthony of Padua 

The frescoes in this chapel were painted in 1609 by 
Cesare Sermei of Orvieto and Girolamo Martelli of Assisi, 
a disciple of Domenichino. If the spectator stands with 
his back to the window he will have on his r. in the lunette, 

(Plan V.) No. 86. S. Anthony preachingjto Pope Gregory 
IX. 

No. 87. To the l. is the Miracle, worked in Rimini in 
order that a certain Bovidilla, who did not believe in the 
Real Presence, might be convinced of its power. Carrying 
the Host in procession the saints met the mule of the 
unbeliever. The animal knelt down, though its master 
tempted it to neglect the presence of the Host by offering 
it food. 

No. 2>^. Below the " Preaching of S. Anthony " and near 
the window there are some remains of pictures, probably 
referring to the story of how the father of S. Anthony, 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 167 

who lived in Lisbon, was falsely accused of a murder. The 
saint was in Italy, but in answer to prayer he appeared 
before the judges and caused the body of the dead man 
to give evidence, so that his father was cleared of 
suspicion. 




A 



£9 

A 




56 



W 



Plan V. — Chapel of S. Anthony in the Lower 
Chapel of San Francesco, Assisi 



The scenes in the window relate to the history of the 
saint. In one of the lights there is a picture of how he 
preached to the fishes. On the under surface of the 
entrance arch are the disciples of S, Francis (No. 89). 



1 68 ASSISI 

The Chapel of S. Mary Magdalene 

The frescoes in this chapel are among the best in the 
lower church ; they are worthy of the most careful study, 
and they should be compared with other examples of the 
best Florentine fourteenth-century painting. The frescoes 
are concerned with the mediaeval account of the life of S. 
Mary Magdalene. 

On the roof of the chapel — 

(Plan VI., p. 170) No. 71. Christ. j : ' 

No. 72. Lazarus. 

No. 73. Martha. 

No. 74. Mary. 

(On the walls.) No. 75. Christ in the house of the 
Pharisee. Mary Magdalene anoints the feet of Christ. 
Christ and two disciples sit at table with the Pharisee and 
a guest. The contrast between the dignified Christ and 
the resentful air of the Jews is striking. Painted by 
Giotto with the help of an assistant. 

No. 76. Raising of Lazarus. This is one of the great 
pictures in early Tuscan art. It is an instance of how the 
best Florentines could deal with the deepest mysteries of 
life in the most impressive manner, and yet bring them 
within the range of average mankind by the subtle percep- 
tion of the human element, which lies hidden in the im- 
penetrable enigma of the universe. The painter makes 
us feel that we are in presence of infinite power, and that 
we share in its manifestation. Painted by Giotto. 

No. 77. Noli me tangere. Mary kneels before Christ ; 
she obeys the command, but she reaches forward in loving 
anxiety. Painted by Giotto in part. 

The mediaeval life of S. Mary Magdalene goes on to 
relate how she, her brother Lazarus, Martha, and other 
Christians were sent to sea in a rudderless boat. They 
were, however, guided by God, and they landed at Mar- 
seilles. The prince and princess of the country heard 
the preaching of Mary, and offered to believe, if she would 
obtain the grace of a son for them. 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 169 

They set out to Palestine to learn of S. Peter. On the 
way the child was born, and the princess died. The child 
was laid beside her on a rocky island, and the prince went 
on to Jerusalem, and was taught by S. Peter for two years. 
On his return they found the child alive, and the princess 
also revived. 

The following pictures are, in the opinion of competent 
authority, mainly by Giotto, while others attribute them 
to assistants : — 

No. 78. In this fresco two angels guide the boat towards 
Marseilles, and there is also an indication of the return of 
the ship with the prince from Palestine. 

No. 79. S. Mary Magdalene, in order to enjoy holy 
contemplation, retired to the desert, and dwelt in a cave 
for thirty years. Angels raised her up daily into the air, 
and she was fed with celestial food. 

No. 80. A priest who had become a hermit saw this, 
and when he was permitted to speak with her she bade 
him warn S. Maximin that she was coming to receive com- 
munion before her death. 

No. 81. S. Mary Magdalene receives the communion 
from S. Maximin. The saint kneels before the bishop, 
who stands at the altar. She died where she knelt, and 
her soul went up to the Lord borne by four angels. This 
vision of the translation is particularly fine. 

No. 82. Bishop Pontano kisses the hand of S. Mary 
Magdalene. 

No. 83. S. Martha. 

No. 84. Bishop Pontano kneels before S. Rufino. The 
figures on the under surface of the entrance to the chapel 
can hardly be distinguished. At the top of the arch there 
is what seems to be a figure of Christ in the form of the 
Sun of Righteousness. There are also SS. Catherine and 
Agatha, SS. Andrew and George, SS. Matthew and Peter, 
SS. Paul and Nicholas ; Paul the Hermit and Anthony the 
Abbot with SS. Agnes and Rosa. 

There are four lights in the window. To the 
l. — 



170 ASSISI 

i. Christ ; S. Mary Magdalene, and two other doubtful 
figures. 

2. Madonna and Child, S. Mary Magdalene in prayer, 




6\ 



dz 



ft 



64 



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l<^ 



Plan VI.— Chapel of S. Mary Magdalene, 
Lower Church of San Francesco, Assisi 



83 



S. Mary Magdalene receives a garment from an angel (?), 
S. Mary Magdalene receives the Sacrament (?). 

3. Noli me tangere, Christ and S. Mary Magdalene ; two 
other doubtful subjects. 

4. Christ in the house of the Pharisee, the Raising of 




Photograph : Alinari 

DETAIL FROM THE LAST SUPPER 

(By Giotto. Arena Chapel, Padua) 

Compare with the " Raising of Lazarus" in the Chapel of S. Mary Magdalen 

at Assisi 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 171 

Lazarus, Martha and Mary kneel before Christ, S. Mary 
Magdalene anoints the feet of Christ. 

Chapel of S. Nicholas.— The Chapel of S. Nicholas or 
Chapel of the Holy Sacrament is at the end of the R. 
transept. This chapel is connected with the memory of 
two cardinals of the Orsini family, Napoleone and Gio- 
vanni Gaetano. On the under side of the entrance arch 
they are presented to Christ by SS. Francis and Nicholas. 
The tomb of one of the brothers is still in the chapel and 
near it is an inscription implying that it is the tomb of 
Gaetano. It has, however, frequently been described as 
that of Napoleone. A second tomb was prepared in the 
Chapel of S. John Baptist at the end of the l. transept, but 
apparently it was never finished. It seems most probable 
that this was intended for Napoleone. The frescoes in the 
chapel are gay and harmonious in colour ; the stories are 
told in a simple straightforward way. They are generally 
ascribed to one of the disciples or assistants of Giotto. 

(Plan VII., p. 172) No. 59. A series of Apostles; ten 
only now remain. 

No. 60. S. Nicholas, desiring to give away the riches left 
by his father, and hearing that a nobleman, unable to give 
marriage portions to his daughters, was about to abandon 
them to an evil life, went by night and threw gold into the 
house, so that there was a portion for each. 

No. 61. S. Nicholas, finding that a consul had corruptly 
condemned three youths to death, took with him three 
princes of the Emperor, who happened to have been driven 
into port by the wind, and seizing the sword with which the 
executioner was about to kill the youths, he unbound them 
and took them away in safety. 

No. 62. S. Nicholas having reproved the consul for his 
corrupt judgment forgives him at the entreaty of the three 
princes. This is one of the best of the series. 

No. 63. The three princes having fallen out of favour 
with the Emperor they are imprisoned, and one of them 
remembering S. Nicholas, they all prayed to him. In the 
night the saint appeared to the Emperor Constantine, 



172 



ASSISI 



causing him so much fear that he examined the prisoners. 




When they had told him of the life of S. Nicholas he bade 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 173 

them to ask for the prayers of the saint for himself and his 
country, and set them free. 

No. 64. A Jew hearing of the power of S. Nicholas set up 
his image and gave his goods to the keeping of the saint. 
He was robbed of everything except the image. Then 
the Jew beat it and abused it. S. Nicholas appearing to 
the thieves, caused them to restore what they had taken, 
and both the thieves and the Jew were converted to the 
truth. 

No. 65. A man who observed the feast of S. Nicholas 
every year was busy making ready for it when the devil 
appeared as a pilgrim. The man bade his son give alms, 
and the pilgrim., when followed by the child, seized and 
strangled him. The father upbraided S. Nicholas and 
prayed to him, and the child came to life again. 

No. 66. A rich man had a son granted to him through the 
intercession of S. Nicholas. The boy was captured by a 
pagan king, and was caused to serve him. On the feast of 
the saint the boy, remembering the annual celebration in 
his father's house, was sorrowful, and when the king knew 
the cause he defied the saint, and said the boy should 
continue to serve him. Suddenly a strong wind carried up 
the child, and set him down at his father's house. 

No. 66a. The parents of the child receive him with great 
joy. 

No. 67. S. John the Baptist. 

No. 68. Probably S. Mary Magdalene. 

No. 69. A figure of Christ , to whom S. Francis and S. 
Nicholas present the two Orsini Cardinals. 

No. 70. On the under surface of the entrance arch there 
are twelve saints — 

SS. Rufinus and Nicholas. 

SS. Francis and Anthony of Padua. 

SS. Sabinus and Victorinus. 

SS. George and Albinus. 

S. Chiara and a Queen. 

SS. Agnes and Cecilia. 

There are three windows with two lights each. 



174 ASSISI 

To the l., SS. Vincentius and Francis, SS. Augustine 
and Adrianus (?), SS. Victorinus and Rufinus. In the 
centre, Christ and S. Francis, SS. Gregory (?) and Nicholas. 
To the R., SS. Stephen and Lorenzo, SS. Francis and An- 
thony, SS. Jerome and Gregory. 

Frescoes in the Right Transept of the 
Lower Church 

(Plan VIIL, p. 176) No. 1. Annunciation. 

No. 2. Salutation, a characteristic piece of early four- 
teenth-century Florentine design. There is a fine sense 
of a mountain country in the background. The two 
women meet with a quiet joy, each knows the destiny of 
the other, and the deference of the older woman for the 
younger is rendered in simple and yet subtle fashion. The 
servants carrying the little necessities for the way mark 
the growing taste for expressing thought and emotion in 
terms of common life. 

No. 3. Nativity. Madonna looks tenderly at the 
swaddled Babe in her arms. The usual Byzantine design 
puts the Babe in the manger, and leaves the Mother un- 
concerned. The ox and the ass have an expression of lively 
interest in the Child, and overhead two choirs of six angels 
float in adoration and prayer. Rays of divine power come 
down from heaven and rest on the Child. Over the roof 
of the shed other choirs of angels see the star, and one of 
them flies down and announces the birth to the shepherds. 
In the foreground the Byzantine tradition of the washing 
of the Babe is followed. Joseph sits at the extreme left, 
resting his head on his hand. There is a note of natural- 
ism throughout. 

No. 4. The Presentation. This is one of the most 
famous of these frescoes. The Temple is an elaborate 
Gothic church decorated with mosaic in the Cosmati 
style. Every figure in the picture, young and old, takes 
its part in expressing the mystery, by which the thoughts 
out of many hearts were to be revealed, and yet no picture 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 175 

in Italian art is more remarkable for the simple rendering 
of maternal affection. 

No. 5. Adoration of the Magi. The Mother and Child 
sit in an open loggia ; they are attended by two nimbed 
figures. The older of the three kings kneels and receives 
the blessing of the Child, the other two kings look on at 
some distance ; all three are nimbed. Their long journey 
is suggested by the heads of two camels which appear at 
one side of the picture. 

No. 6. Plight into Egypt. There is a striking desert 
landscape. Joseph has something of the air and bearing 
of an ancient Roman. An angel in the sky shows the way. 

No. 7. Slaughter of the Innocents. Herod, in his im- 
passive attitude, is the strong feature of this picture. The 
action is extravagant and the intensity of suffering is 
poorly rendered. 

No. 8. Christ among the Doctors. This is an impressive 
design. The Child seated in the centre in calm rule draws 
the attention and holds it. The scene is in a Gothic church 
with side chapels. Joseph and Mary enter to the left, and 
hold up their hands in wonder as they see their son teaching 
with authority among the patriarchs of the nation. 

No. 9. Christ goes with his Parents. Jerusalem is 
painted as a fourteenth-century city. Mary and Joseph 
pass out into the country. Christ has become the child 
again ; he looks up at Joseph with confidence and just 
touches the sleeve of his robe. 

No. 10. Resurrection of a Child. A mother desiring to 
go to church left a child, seven years of age, shut up in her 
house. It fell from a window and died. The mother on 
her return began to weep, so that a crowd was gathered. 
A certain Brother Rano asking the father of the child 
whether he believed in S. Francis, the father answered, 
Yes ; and if he (S. Francis) would do him the grace to 
revive the child he would ever be his devout servant. 
Then the whole company began to pray, and the child rose 
to life. 

No. 11. Over the oloor from the r. transept into the 



176 



ASSISI 



monastery there is a freseo of Christ. To correspond with 
it there is a similar fresco of S. Francis (No. 13) over the 
door from the l. transept. 




Plan VIII. — Right Transept, Lower Church, 
San Francesco, Assisi 



No. 12. S. Francis and a Skeleton. This life and its 
accidents were to the mind of S. Francis of little import- 
ance. Death comes to all men alike — to the king, whose 
crowned skeleton mocks his earthly greatness, and to the 
common man. It becomes, therefore, a symbol of the 




Photograph : Brogi 

MADONNA AND CHILD 

(By Guido da Siena. In the Palazzo Pubblico, Siena) 

Compare with Madonna and Child in the right transept of the Lower 

Church, Assisi 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 177 

equality of all men in the sight of God. We are in presence 
of the two obligations of humanity. S. Francis stands for 
that which ought to be the common lot, the life of Holy 
Poverty, the ideal of the perfection of Christ. Death comes 
as the common lot by which all may pass from the shadows 
of this life to the realities of the next. 

Nos. 13 and 14 probably refer to the story of a miracle 
worked in the city of Suessa. A house fell and killed a boy • 
The people raised the body from among the ruins, and the 
mother, who had faith in S. Francis, began to cry, u S. 
Francis, I pray thee give me back my son alive, and I will 
cover thy altar with new cloth." And thus they remained 
till midnight, when the boy arose and " began to praise God 
and S. Francis." 

No. 13 shows how the people recovered the body from 
the ruins of the fallen house. The figure of a man standing 
with his finger touching his chin is supposed to be a portrait 
of Giotto. 

No. 14. The clergy and people have gathered for the 
funeral. In an open loggia, in the upper part of the picture, 
S. Francis descends from the sky, and, taking the boy by 
the hand, brings him to life. 

No. 15. In the R. transept. This picture of the Cruci- 
fixion is symbolical ; it is not intended to represent the 
event as it happened. There are no thieves, and on the 
R. side of the cross S. Francis kneels with two of his 
brethren. S. Mary Magdalene embraces the feet of Christ. 
To the l,, Mary falls in a swoon. There is a notable group 
of Jews to the r. of the picture. A small medallion in 
the frame at the top has a figure of the pelican, in refer- 
ence to Ps. cii. 6. One of the popular stories about this 
bird was, that the young strike their father and he kills 
them ; then the mother pierces her breast, and the blood 
which flows from it brings the young birds to life again. 
" If this be true," says Augustine, " see how it agreeth 
with Him who gave us life by His blood." At the bottom 
of the picture is a similar little painting of the lion licking 
its cubs, in reference to the story that the cubs were born 



i7 8 ASSISI 

dead, and were brought to life after three days by the 
father licking them. In this was seen a type of the 
Resurrection after the three days in the tomb. 

The foregoing pictures in the R. transept are generally 
attributed to one or other of the scholars or disciples who 
are supposed to have assisted Giotto. 

No. 1 6. Madonna and Child with Angels and S. Francis. 
This famous picture has traditionally been assigned to 
Cimabue. 

It represents the transition from Byzantine to Florentine 
ideals. The celestial powers reveal to man the Divine 
Child. The grand sweep of the angels' wings, the graceful 
inclination of their forms and the reverent graciousness of 
their expression strike the active note in the picture. 
Madonna is passive ; she has lost the abstract quality of 
the Mother of God, and has not gained the natural quality 
of the mother of a human child. The heavily coiled hair 
of the angels, the veil and robe of the Madonna, and many 
other details, show the effect of the Byzantine tradition. 
The ordered magnificence of the throne, the rich hangings, 
and the splendour of the celestial spirits are in strange 
contrast to S. Francis, the humble follower of Holy 
Poverty, who stands at the R. of the picture. The in- 
significant figure of the " little poor man of Assisi," stand- 
ing apart as it does from the general design, does not at 
first suggest the doctors and saints of fifteenth and six- 
teenth century altar-pieces, and yet it may be regarded 
as an early example of such schemes. This picture is one 
of the most interesting in the whole range of Italian art. 
To the student of style it marks with peculiar delicacy 
the change of manner ; to those who study the mind of 
the thirteenth century it is full of suggestion ; to all it 
remains one of the most lovely creations of human genius. 

No. 17. A series of eight half-lengths. To the r., 
Madonna and Child, with a king on the one side and a 
queen on the other — probably S. Louis and S. Catherine 
of Alexandria. To the extreme l. is S. Francis, and 
between these the frescoes probably represent S. John the 




Photograph : Brogi 

S. AGNES AND GABRIEL 

(From the " Maesta" of Simone Martini in the Palazzo Pubbi.ico, 

Siena) 

Compare with the half length figures in the right transept oftthe Lower 

Church, Assisi 



THE CHURCH OF S, FRANCESCO 179 

Evangelist, Sta. Chiara, S. Elizabeth of Hungary , and S. 
Louis the Archbishop. S. Louis the King was the patron 
of the Brothers, and S. Elizabeth of Hungary was the 
patroness of the Sisters of the Third Order. The work has 
been attributed to Sirnone Martini of Siena (1285 ?-i344). 
These half-lengths are charming and peculiarly character- 
istic works of the Sienese school at its best, and as they are 
close to the scenes of the " Nativity " and " Presentation/' 
and other Florentine works of the same period and of 
equally fine quality, there is an opportunity for the 
traveller to compare the two great branches of Tuscan art 
at its most interesting period. 

The Vault over the High Altar 

The frescoes are now generally attributed to followers of 
Giotto. 

(Plan XL, p. 196) No. 32 represents the Mystical Marriage 
of S. Francis with the Holy Lady Poverty, she who when 
" Mary stayed below, mounted the Cross with Christ " 
(Wicksteed's translation, Par. xi. 71-72). The scene is laid 
on a bare rock. Christ stands between the pair holding 
the arm of Poverty, while S. Francis puts a ring on her 
finger ; to the l. of Poverty stands Hope and Charity. 
. On a ledge of the rock below are two undersized figures ; 
the one casts a stone at Poverty, the other points with a 
stick, and a dog barks — for to her, as to death, no one opens 
the gate willingly (Par. xi. 59-60). 

At the lower corners of the picture are groups showing 
how men make right and wrong judgments as to what is 
the real good. To the spectator's l. a youth, moved by 
charity, gives his robe to a beggar. To the r. there is a 
group of three men ; one has nothing to indicate his ten- 
dency, the others have chosen the gathering of wealth and 
the pleasures of the senses as their aim. On each side of 
the central figures are groups of angels, and in the apex 
the Father Eternal looks down on the scene. 

Mr Ruskin says that the thorns which are gathered 



180 ASS J SI 

round the feet of Lady Poverty are those of the Acacia, 
from which the crown of thorns was made. The roses and 
the lilies which spring up behind her are symbols of love 
and purity. Charity has a garland of flowers, and the 
warmth of her love is figured by the flames which encircle 
her head. She has a circular nimbus, like Christ, the 
angels, and S. Francis, while Poverty and Hope have each 
a hexagonal nimbus. The circle was considered a more 
perfect form than the square or the hexagonal. The 
square nimbus was usually reserved for living persons — 
the hexagonal for the virtues, while the circular nimbus 
was the figure of the eternal and everlasting condition. 
Charity has the circular form, as it is the universal passion, 
neither Creator nor creature was ever without it {Purg. 
xvii. 91), and the principle of love " tends to God as the 
principle of happiness " (Gardner, " Ten Heavens," p. 183). 

Two angels rise up towards heaven, the one bears a 
church with a walled garden. This fair building, with its 
garden full of fresh green and beautiful foliage, is a figure 
of the new vigour and force in the Church, springing from 
the freedom of spirit gained by putting away the hindrances 
which choke the true life of the soul. The other angel 
offers up a purse and a garment, probably to signify that 
the things which have been received from the goodness of 
God should be offered in His service. 

The scene in which the young Francis renounced his 
family and his heritage, and gave up even the clothes he 
wore, here receives its mystical interpretation. When the 
brethren asked him what virtue made a man most the 
friend of Christ, he answered : " Know, brothers, that 
Poverty is the special way for Salvation, because she is 
humility and the root of Perfection. . . . And if any man 
wishes to ascend to the height of Perfection he must re- 
nounce worldly wisdom and knowledge of letters, that is 
to say, if he is to get gain of it. For if he is freed from all 
such worldly powers and possessions he may enter into 
the power of God, and offer himself naked to the arms of 
Christ. It cannot be said that a man has renounced all, 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 181 

if he has reserved something of his own prudence or 
understanding." 

No. 33. Holy Chastity is personified by a young woman 
who is seen in prayer in the tower of a strong castle. The 
building is on a bare rock, and is surrounded by walls and 
towers in the usual fashion. 

Two angels float round about the tower, and offer a palm 
and a crown to Chastity. 

The central scene outside the castle walls is purifica- 
tion by baptism of a young man ; an angel lays a hand on 
his head, and another pours water over it. To the R., 
two angels hold clothing ready for him, probably the habit 
of the order. Purity and Fortitude lean over the castle 
wall, the one with a banner and the other with a shield, so 
that the newly baptised one may be made ready to join the 
soldiery of the heavenly kingdom. The outward purifica- 
tion of the body by water is the symbol of that inward 
purification of the soul which springs from the renunciation 
implied in the Franciscan ideal of Poverty. When pride 
of intellect, self-assertion, ambition, avarice, and love of 
luxury, have been driven out by the love of Holy Poverty 
then is there true purification alike of body and soul. 

Returning to the picture, three figures on the l. eagerly 
climb the rocky slope, and stretch upwards towards S. 
Francis ; he takes the hand of one of them, who is a monk. 
An angel holds out a cross, and a nun reaches towards it to 
clasp it in her hand. The monk and nun have been called 
Bernard of Quintevalle and Sta. Chiara ; the layman is 
supposed to represent the third order. On the other side 
of the fresco there is a contest with the vices. " Amor " 
and two other personifications of disorder are being forced 
over the edge of the rock. A cowled and winged figure 
of Penitence lays her lash on the back of " Amor," and an 
angel thrusts at him with a spear. Another angel with 
cross and shield stands in an attitude of defence. Death 
as a skeleton forces an evil spirit down into the abyss. 

Another important element of the picture is the placing 
of guardians on each of the three sides of the castle. They 



1 82 A SSI SI 

have circular nimbuses and wings. Those that can be 
fully seen in the front have shield s, and two of them bear 
scourges — they are the ministers of Penitence and de- 
fenders of the Castle of Chastity. They are also doubtless 
ministers of God, the swords and shields suggesting that 
they belong to the order of the Principalities. 

A certain brother on one occasion said to Brother 
Egidio, " You who so commend the virtue of chastity, tell 
me what it is ? " " Brother/' answered Egidio, " I tell 
thee, that properly, chastity is the anxious custodian and 
continual guardian of the corporal and spiritual senses, 
preserving them pure and immaculate for God alone." 

Holy Obedience is the subject of the fresco No. 34. 
The sanction for this quality is found in the Crucified 
Christ, partially visible behind the figure of Obedience. 
Man is subject to various temptations on his way towards 
the true goal of life. The pleasure in riches and other 
material well-being, and the pleasure in the beauty and 
capacity of the body, may both be subdued and yet man is 
not free from danger. 

Unless the will is brought into subjection, there can be 
no right rule of life, for it is by the will (that is, by the union 
of desire and reason) that the use of our capacities is 
regulated. Hence, if they are to be turned to the best 
purpose, man must be stripped of his self-will so that temp- 
tation may be put away from him. 

This submission of the will is represented by Holy 
Obedience, who sits in the centre of the picture, laying her 
hand upon the yoke, which a monk who kneels before her 
holds in his hands. She lays a finger on her mouth to 
forbid speech, for in silence we may best study that which 
is in the heart. To the l. sits Prudence with two faces, 
one old, the other young, a figure of the memory of things 
past, and an understanding of things present, from which 
springs a foresight of that which is to come. Prudence is 
the quality which leads a man to a " right estimate of the 
best interests of life." 

In order that this power of estimating may be gained, 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 183 

there must be experience and a broad outlook over life 
regarded as a whole. Hence Prudence holds a looking- 
glass, in which the kneeling monk, when he turns his head, 
may see reflected therein the past and present, as it were, 
so that he may guide himself aright in the future. 

The compasses she holds symbolise the measure in all 
things by which a man exercises moderation and attains to 
calmness of soul. 

Besides the looking-glass and the compasses, Prudence 
has an astronomical instrument, explaining the method of 
the ruling of the heavens, used here as a symbol of the 
ruling which Prudence exercises in the life of man. 

Opposite to Prudence, and to the r. of Obedience, is 
seated Humility. This is the quality which most easily 
opens the mind to the influence of celestial as opposed to 
terrestrial things. It is the most efficient means of putting 
aside all that which hinders the spiritual life. In the exer- 
cise of it, man makes free progress towards the Divine. 
Humility is a state implying an absence of all presumption, 
and in this simplicity, virtue gives a clear and bright light, 
which is symbolised by the candle she has in her hand. 

He who by Prudence forms a true conception of the 
right aim in life, and who through Humility is saved from 
the temptations which beset the soul, is fitted to submit 
his will to the yoke of subjection. If he is moved to bear 
the yoke by the spirit of Charity then he will rise to heaven 
by Holy Obedience — this is signified by the wings which 
she bears. 

Below the figure of Prudence two novices are led towards 
Holy Obedience by an angel. On the other side, below 
Humility, is a centaur ; he has the body of a man, the fore- 
feet of a horse, and the hind feet of a beast of prey. This 
creature of mixed nature is significant of the man in whom 
reason no longer holds sway over the lower nature. An 
angel points to Holy Obedience as a means of reconcilia- 
tion, only to produce disgust and aversion in a being so 
disordered and misruled. 

Obedience, Prudence, and Humility sit in an open loggia ; 



1 84 ASSISI 

at each side there is a company of kneeling angels, and 
above we see S. Francis attended by two kneeling angels. 
He is drawn up to heaven by cords ; he has in his left hand 
a cross, and the marks of the Stigmata are shown. 

No. 35. The Glory of S. Francis. A certain brother, 
when travelling with S. Francis, had a vision of a throne 
set in heaven, and he heard a voice saying, u This seat was 
Lucifer's who fell through pride, and now it is kept for the 
humble Francis." The saint sits with a cross in his right 
hand, and in his left, a book. Over his head is a banner 
with a cross, and an angel of the order of Seraphim, who 
"see more of the First Cause than any other angelic 
nature." 

Round about the throne of S. Francis is a company of 
angels dancing, singing, and making music. Like the 
spirits that Dante sees in the heaven of the sun, they seem 
" as ladies not from the dance released, but pausing, silent, 
listening, till they catch the notes renewed " (Wicksteed's 
translation, Par. x. 79-81). Then again, " the glorious 
wheel " revolves, and renders " voice to voice in harmony 
and sweetness that may not be known except where joy 
maketh itself eternal " (Wicksteed's translation, Par. x. 
145-148). # 

Life in its most complete form exists in God, who, while 
He is Himself unmoved, is the source from whence all 
motion proceeds. Motion is therefore an expression of the 
life which man receives from God, and since this life par- 
takes of the nature of God, it finds its most complete 
development in the desire of the individual to return to its 
source. This desire is an expression of love, and as its 
object is to return to God, it is the love of God. 

Hence the revolving of the heavens of the angels round 
the point from which springs life (Par. xxviii. 16), the 
circling of the souls which Dante sees, and the dancing of 
the angels round the throne of S. Francis is nothing else 
than an expression of the bond which unites all created 
things in their love of the Creator. It is in this circuit of 
motion, of life, and of love, that the soul gains strength to 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 185 

perceive the final vision of the " Eternal Light who only in 
Itself abides, only Itself understands, and to Itself turns 
love and smiling " (Wicksteed's translation, Par. xxxiii* 
124-126). 

This vision of the Eternal is realised in the painting upon 
the ribs of the vaulting. In the centre, where the ribs 
join, is the figure of the Almighty, and gathered round 
in circle after circle are figures illustrative of the Apo- 
calyptic vision in parts of the iv. and vi. chapters of 
Revelation. In the first circle there may still be seen the 
Lamb and the Altar. In the second circle (following from 
rib to rib) are the four living things having the likenesses of 
a lion, a calf, the face of a man, and an eagle. In the third 
circle are the four riders on the white, the red, the black, 
and the pale horses. There are also the lamps which 
signify the Seven Spirits of God. 

The angelic host is indicated by figures symbolising the 
orders of the heavenly hierarchy. Seraphim are nearest 
the centre, Cherubim, with two faces, come next ; then 
there are figures of the order of Thrones, and other angels, 
with symbols difficult to recognise, but probably represent- 
ing the rest of the nine orders. There are also figures 
representing the four and twenty elders. Although it is 
now difficult to make a satisfactory identification of the 
individual members of the whole scheme, there can be 
little doubt it is intended to represent the vision which 
was seen by the hundred and forty and four thousand 
servants of God, who were sealed in their foreheads. 

This vision of the Glory of God is the consummation 
of the whole scheme of the transepts of the lower church. 
The life of Christ is the example which a man ought to 
set before him. He who lives under the rule of Holy 
Poverty, Holy Obedience, and Holy Chastity is following 
in the footsteps of Christ. To such an one will it be given 
as it was to Francis to be raised up to enjoy the enlighten- 
ment of the everlasting Kingdom, and to perceive " the 
dispensation of the mystery which from all ages hath 
been hid in God." 



1 86 ASSISI 

The high altar is of elaborate construction ; it is sup- 
ported on an arcading of pointed and cusped arches 
carried on small pillars of various design with richly 
sculptured capitals. The spandrels of the arcading and 
the face of the arches are richly decorated with gilt and 
marble mosaic. The table is said to be formed of an 
immense piece of marble brought from Constantinople, 
and Pope Innocent IV. consecrated the altar in 1253 in 
presence of great multitudes of people. 

Frescoes in the Left Transept 

At present there is a pretty general agreement that the 
frescoes in the l. transept were painted by Pielro Loren- 
zetli with the help of an assistant. 

(Plan IX., p. 188) No. 1. The Entry into Jerusalem. The 
twelve Apostles headed by S. Peter follow Christ ; they are 
met by the crowd at the gate of the city. Boys throw 
olive branches in the way. 

No. 2. The Last Supper. The meal is eaten at a circular 
table, Judas cannot therefore sit on the outer side ; he is 
distinguished by having no nimbus. 

No. 3. The Washing of the Feet. S. Peter puts his 
hand to his head, saying, " Lord, not my feet only, but 
also my hands and my head." The Apostles are not so 
dignified as in the scene of the Entry into Jerusalem. 

No. 4. The Betrayal. There is not a noble figure in 
the whole composition. The sense of degradation could 
hardly be more complete than that conveyed by the flight 
of the Apostles. It is no band of regular soldiers, but 
rather a mob that enters the garden. The face of Judas 
has some quality in it, but that of Christ is not only un- 
seemly, it is ignoble, and the Apostle who stands in the 
lower right-hand corner is of the most vulgar type. 

No. 5. The Flagellation. This scene takes place before 
Pilate. To the R. a group of Pharisees look on with 
a satisfied air. The central figure is miserably inade- 
quate. There is no attempt made to render a dignified 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 187 

bearing under degradation and suffering, and the ex- 
pression even of physical pain fails. 

No. 6. Christ led to Calvary. Again the central figure 
is mean and cringing. Distortion of face takes the place of 
a dignified expression of emotion. The two thieves walk 
in advance of Christ. 

No. 7. An immense Crucifixion occupies one side of 
the transept. The fresco has been damaged, the central 
foreground having been cut away. The scene is treated 
historically and not symbolically. The figure of Christ on 
the Cross shows an advance in power of rendering the 
human frame as compared with the Crucifixions in the 
transepts of the upper church. The countenance is strong 
and expressive. The two thieves are also competently 
rendered. There is an immense crowd of bystanders, 
mainly Roman soldiers ; they add nothing either to the 
character or beauty of the picture. In the foreground, to 
the R., the group of women support the swooning mother, 
and S. John looks on in helpless misery. The scene indeed 
is treated as one of human suffering ; even the angels who 
fly round the cross express bitterness and tribulation in 
commonplace demonstrations of sorrow, proper to trivial 
rather than to deep and significant emotion. 

The new attitude towards life presents its weaker side 
to us. Christ ceased to be a more or less abstract repre- 
sentation of the Divine Majesty. He was realised as the 
Man of Sorrows. At the same time the teaching of S. 
Bernard and S. Francis had quickened the emotions of 
men ; the love of God became an active principle working 
on the feelings rather than on the intelligence of mankind. 
Hence we find a tendency to exaggerate the emotional 
aspect of the mysteries of man's being at the expense of 
the wider and deeper significance of things. 

No. 8. The Deposition from the Cross. A study of 
human emotion which conveys no effective sense of the 
scene. The purely physical phenomenon has blinded the 
eyes of the onlookers to the underlying fact that death 
is about to be swallowed up in victory. The action 



1 88 ASSISI 

of the one who draws out the nail from the feet is 
trivial. 
No. 9. The Entombment. The same seven persons 




Plan IX. — Left Transept, Lower Church, 
San Francesco, Assisi 



who appear in the Deposition take part in the entomb- 
ment. 

No. 10. The Resurrection. Once more the central 
figure is the least satisfactory. Christ rises out of the 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 189 

tomb bearing the cross of victory ; five angels on each side 
greet Him. Around the tomb lie the soldiers on guard ; 
they are fin£ figures, and their sleep is rendered naturally. 

No. 11. The Descent into Hades. This fresco is much 
damaged. 

No. 12. S. Francis receives the Stigmata. Its position 
opposite the?great Crucifixion (No. 7) suggests the parallel 
which has been frequently noted. Monte della Vernia in 
the Casentino having been given to the brethren for a place 
of prayer, Francis/ with the brothers Masseo, Angelo, and 
Leo, went from Sta. Maria degli Angeli to spend the feast 
of S. Michael there in the year 1224. On the mountain they 
dwelt under a beech-tree, and one day when Francis mar- 
velled how the rocks were fissured, it was shown to him 
that they had been miraculously rent asunder at the time 
of Christ's Passion. He therefore perceived that it was 
here that the passion was to be renewed, in his soul by love 
and compassion, and in his body by the marks of the holy 
Stigmata. After this he was often visited by angels, and 
enjoyed much of the sweetness of holy contemplation ; his 
body was sometimes raised from the ground, and was sur- 
rounded by such splendour that his brethren could hardly 
see him. 

On the feast of the Assumption he went by himself into 
a more solitary place, where Brother Leo was to bring 
bread and water and say matins with him. In this place 
he was sorely vexed by the devil, who fought much with 
him, but he was comforted by angels, and every morning 
a falcon awoke him in time for matins.. Once when he was 
contemplating the unmeasurable glory and joy of the 
blessed in the life everlasting, an angel appeared to him, 
and made such ravishing music that all bodily understand- 
ing ceased. 

At another time Brother Leo followed Francis, and saw 
a light descend on his head. Francis told Leo how God 
had spoken to him and asked for three gifts. Then he 
found three balls of gold in his breast, and offering these to 
God, it was shown to him that they signified holy obedience, 



J9o ASSISI 

the most lofty poverty, and the most noble chastity. By 
the opening of the Gospel in the name of the Most Holy 
Trinity three times in succession at the Passion of Christ, 
it was further shown to Francis that as he had followed 
Christ in the acts of his life, so he should conform himself 
in the affliction and anguish of the Passion. 

On the morning of the day of the Most Holy Cross 
Francis, turning himself to the East, prayed that he might 
feel in his body the pain of the Passion, and in his heart the 
love which moved Christ to bear so much for sinners. Then 
the fervour of devotion grew in him so much that he was 
transformed into Jesus through love and compassion. He 
saw a seraph come from heaven in swift flight, with six 
shining wings, and he drew so near that Francis saw the 
likeness of a crucified man. And it was shown to him that 
not by martyrdom of the body, but by kindling of the 
spirit must he be transformed into the express likeness of 
Christ crucified. Then Monte della Vernia appeared as 
though burning with flame, and the valleys and mountains 
round about were lighted up so that the shepherds seeing 
it had great fear. 

No. 13. A picture of S. Francis over the door leading 
into the monastery, similar to the picture of Christ (No. 11) 
over the corresponding door in the R. transept. 

No. 14. In the corresponding place to the picture of 
S. Francis and the Skeleton in the southern transept, there 
is in the northern transept a picture of the Death of Judas. 
The contrast is suggested between the coming of death to 
those who with Francis follow Christ, and to those who like 
Judas crucify Him. 

No. 15. Madonna and Child with S. John the Evan- 
gelist and S. Francis. This picture is usually attributed 
to Pietro Lorenzetti ; it is one of the most beautiful in the 
church. It is purely a realisation of emotion ; there is 
hardly a trace of action either intellectual or physical be- 
yond the gesture with which Madonna points out S. Francis 
to the Child. The emotion is of the simplest kind ; the 
Child looks up at His mother with a certainty of sympathy, 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 191 

the mother regards the Child wistfully, her love is over- 
shadowed by a sense of the evil days to come. S. John 
the Evangelist enjoys a classical serenity just tempered by 
the naturalism of the time ; it is a fine ideal of the disciple 
whom Jesus loved. S. Francis is not characterised as the 
joyful and simple soul that loved to beg for daily bread, 
and dreaded the possession even of learning — there is 
something of the student in the face, which suggests the 
Dominican rather than the Franciscan habit of mind. It 
is not only the emotion which is of the simplest kind, the 
artistic means chosen to express it are equally unaffected. 
All that can be gained by severity and refinement of draw- 
ing and colour we enjoy in this picture. 

At the end of the l. transept there is the apsidal chapel 
of S. John Baptist. Over the tomb prepared for one of the 
Orsini cardinals, Pietro Lorenzetti painted a picture of 
Madonna and Child with S. John Baptist and S. Francis. 

A door leads into the sacristies and to the staircase 
to the upper church. Over this door is a picture painted 
in 1516 by Lo Spagna, Madonna and Child with SS. 
Francis, Elizabeth, Catherine, Louis of France, Chiara, 
and Anthony of Padua. 

In the sacristy there is a painting representing S. 
Francis, by Giunta Pisano ; the Veil of Madonna, presented 
by Tommaso degli Orsini in 13 19 ; and various other inter- 
esting relics. 

Frescoes in the Chapel of S. Martin 

Gentile Partino da Montefiore was made a cardinal by 
Boniface VIII. in 1298 ; after acting as legate in Hungary, 
he returned to Italy, and founded two chapels in S. 
Francesco, the one dedicated in the name of S. Martin of 
Tours, the other in the name of S. Louis, King of France, 
already described. In the Chapel of S. Martin Simone 
Martini painted in 132 2- 1326, assisted by his brother 
Donate. 

(Plan X., p. 193) No. 49. Martin divides his cloak with a 



192 ASS1S1 

beggar. When riding out of Amiens in winter-time, 
Martin met a poor naked man to whom no one gave heed. 
He drew his sword, cut his mantle, and gave half of it to 
the beggar. 

No. 50. Martin lies asleep ; he sees in a vision Jesus 
Christ wearing the mantle he had given to the poor man. 
Angels surround Christ, who points to the sleeper ; they 
have large dull faces with narrow eyes, and hair arranged 
in heavy coils, characteristic of the Sienese school. 

No. 51. Martin is girt with the sword and spurs of 
knighthood. The young soldier, his hands clasped in 
prayer, looks up with an ecstatic air regardless of his sur- 
roundings. The Emperor, who binds on the sword, looks 
at him with alarm, uncertain what such a temper may 
mean. To the R. of the picture a commonplace and 
rather grotesque group celebrate the occasion with music. 

No. 52. S. Martin refuses the Emperor's donative. 
The Emperor gives money to the knights who ' fought 
against the barbarians, and in the background an armed 
soldier receives his share. In the foreground S. Martin 
refuses to accept the gift. The Emperor, seated with ball 
and sceptre and wearing a garland, looks at the saint with 
an air of offence and with the cunning amazement natural 
to the worldly mind when it suddenly finds itself in pres- 
ence of the spiritual life. Martin holds a cross and looks 
over his shoulder at the Emperor ; his figure is a marvel 
of detailed realisation, but the shade of disdain which 
passes across his features fails to strike the true note. The 
soldier who stands at the side of the principal figure has 
something of the same fantastic character as the man with 
the double flute in the last fresco. 

No. 53. S. Martin restores a child to life. The fresco is 
much damaged. 

No. 54. S. Martin and the Emperor Valentinian. S. 
Martin desired to have some grant from the Emperor, 
who would not see him. After a week's fasting an angel 
bade the saint go to the palace, and told him that he would 
find entrance. When S. Martin appeared before Valen- 




PJiotograph : Lombardi 

KNEELING ANGEL 

(From the " Maesta " by Simone Martini in the Palazzo Pubblico, 
Siena) 

Compare with the frescoes in the Chapel of S. Martino, Lower Church of 
Assisi. Painted by Simone Martini 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 193 

tinian, the Emperor, in spite of his anger, was forced to 
confess the influence of divine power. Rising from his 




Plan X. — Chapel of S. Martin, Lower Church of 
San Francesco, Assisi 

throne, he embraced the saint and granted that which was 
desired. 

No. SS- ^V Mass of S. Martin. S. Martin, going to 



i 9 4 ASSISI 

church, gave his own clothing to a poor man ; and his arch- 
deacon, in contempt, brought him a common garment from 
the market. It was so short that when the saint raised his 
arms in saying Mass it was seen that they were bare, and 
angels brought sleeves of gold, and upon his head there 
lighted fire from above as upon the heads of the 
Apostles. 

No. 56. Probably represents the death of S. Martin. 

No. 57. Probably refers to the revelation of the death 
of S. Martin made to S. Ambrose. S. Ambrose, whilst 
saying Mass, fell asleep between the lesson of the prophecy 
and the Epistle. After waiting for three hours for leave to 
read the Epistle, his clergy awoke him, and he told them 
that he had been at the burial of S. Martin, and that in 
disturbing him they had prevented him making an end of 
the prayers. 

No. 58. Probably the funeral of S. Martin. 

The chapel was built by the Franciscan Cardinal Gentile 
da Montefiore. Over the entrance there is a picture of S. : 
Martin raising the kneeling cardinal. On the under 
surface of the entrance archway there are painted SS. 
Francis and Anthony, SS. Catherine and Mary Magdalene, 
SS. Louis the King and Louis the Archbishop, and SS. 
Chiara and Elizabeth. These are all in the Sienese 
manner. 

There are six lights in the window. The central subjects 
are Christ and Madonna ; perhaps Martin as a warrior and 
S. Peter ; S. Martin as a bishop and Cardinal Gentile. In 
the lights to the l. there are : SS. Gregory and Martin ; 
SS. Francis and Nicholas ; a bishop and S. Stephen. In 
the lights to the R., SS. Jerome and Paul ; a civilian with 
a palm (?) and a bishop ; and SS. Anthony of Padua and 
Lorenzo. 

The frescoes in this chapel show able characterisation. 
The Emperor, his soldiers, the camp followers, the eager 
spirit of the young saint, the severe gravity of the elderly 
bishops, are all well rendered ; but the individual figures 
are not fused into dramatic representations. There is a 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 195 

marvellous care in detail and a keen sense of decorative 
effect and refinement. 

The following frescoes form a representation of Sienese 
art in S. Francesco : No. 17 in the right transept, Nos. 
1 to 11 — the Passion scenes — in the left transept, No. 15 
also in that transept, and Nos. 49 to 58 in the Chapel of 
S. Martin. Hardly anywhere else except in Siena or S. 
Gimignano can a collection of Sienese art be seen on the 
same grand scale, and not even in these places is there 
the same opportunity of comparing the Sienese and 
Florentine schools. 

On leaving the chapel return to the atrium. Turn to 
the R. (XL on the ground plan, p. 196). 

1. The small Chapel of S. Sebastian. 

2. A fresco attributed to Ottaviano Nelli. Madonna is 
seated on a throne, on the pedestals of which are the four 
cardinal virtues. To the l. stand SS. Francis and Anthony 
the Abbot, and to the R. a bishop. 

Return to the central nave. 

Frescoes in the Nave of the Lower Church 

On the walls of the nave of the lower church there are 
remains of frescoes now hardly distinguishable. On the 
r. wall there are scenes from the Passion of Christ, and 
on the l. scenes from the life of S. Francis. 

On the Right Wall 

(Plan XL, p. 196) Nos. 36 and 37 have probably formed 
parts of a Crucifixion ; to the l. it is possible to distinguish 
Madonna and S. John the Evangelist. 

No. 38. Deposition from the Cross. 

No. 39. Entombment. Christ lies upon the rock, 
women are gathered about the body. 

On the Left Wall 

No. 40. Francis renounces the world. 
No. 41. The Pope sees the vision of a poor man support- 
ing the Church of the Lateran. 



196 ASSIST 

No. 42. Francis preaches to the birds. 

No. 43. Francis receives the Stigmata. 

No. 44. Death of Francis (close to the pulpit). 

No. 45. Coronation of the Virgin, on the wall at the 
back of the pulpit. A beautiful fresco in the Florentine 
manner. Christ and His Mother are seated on a throne 
together ; they turn towards each other, and Madonna, who 
is clothed in white and has a white veil over her head, folds 




Plan XI. — Nave of the Lower Church 
of San Francesco, Assisi 



her arms in loving adoration and receives the crown from 
Christ. At each side of the throne nimbed saints and 
angels look on with eager joy. 

No. 46. Scene from the life of S. Stanislas, Bishop of 
Cracow. This bishop was canonised in the church by 
Innocent IV. in 1253. King Boleslas having seized a piece 
of land belonging to tue Church, the Bishop raised a man 
from the dead to give testimony to its proper ownershiip. 



THE CHURCH OF Si FRANCESCO 197 

No. 47. Bishop Stanislas having censured the disorders 
of the king's actions, he is murdered by order of the king 
while at the altar on the 7th May 1079. 

No. 48. Remains of a picture of the Crucifixion. 

The Crypt. — The body of S. Francis was brought to the 
church on the 25th May 1230. The authorities of Assisi, 
fearing that an attempt might be made to seize it, sur- 
rounded the procession with armed men, and as soon as it 
had entered, the doors were shut against the crowd. It 
has been supposed by some that the translation had 
already been secretly made at night. In either case the 
actual place of burial was so carefully hid, that it was only 
as the result of excavations ordered by Pius VII. in 181 8 
that the tomb was found. The crypt was built in 1824. 
It is reached by stairs descending from the nave. Francis 
is said to have foreseen that his body should receive great 
honour after his death, and " so will it be for the praise of 
my God, and by His grace" {" Mirror of Perfection," cix.). 

To reach the upper church, mount the stair which leads 
from the l. transept. 

Frescoes in the Upper Church 

The frescoes in the transepts, the choir, on the upper 
part of the walls of the nave, and on the vaulting of the 
roof were painted by the generation, which in style and 
for the most part in time, preceded Giotto and Simone 
Martini. No direct documentary evidence has been 
found as to authorship. Critics have hazarded certain 
attributions mainly founded on what have been held to 
be analogies between the frescoes in Assisi and works in 
other parts of Italy, of which the authorship is supposed 
to be more or less known. The date is equally uncertain ; 
probably most critics would place the work round about 
the last quarter of the thirteenth century. The names 
most usually associated with the paintings are those of 
Cirnabue, Pietro Cavallini, Jacopo Torriti, Gaddo Gaddi, 
and Filippa Rusutti. 



198 ASSISI 

The frescoes in the transepts and the choir are generally 
ascribed to Ctmabue, a Florentine painter, who is supposed 
to have flourished from about 1240 up to the early years 
of the fourteenth century. 



Frescoes in the Left Transept 

This part of the church was dedicated in the name of S. 
Michael and the Holy Angels. 

(Plan XII. , p. 200) (dd.) In the galleries, on the R. and 
l. walls, there are large and magnificent figures of angels, 
three on each side. 

(ee.) Above the gallery, to the R., are six half-lengths 
of angels. 

(ff.) St Michael and two other angels thrust down the 
Great Dragon and two other evil spirits. 

The frescoes on the lower parts of the walls refer to the 
vision of the end of the world as it was unveiled in the Book 
of Revelations, (gg-) This fresco is badly damaged, but it 
is possible to see a representation based upon, but not 
exactly following, the vision described in Rev. v. 

In the upper part of the picture is an almond-shaped 
aureole, enclosing a throne on which lies the Divine Child. 
At the sides of the aureole are circular glories, enclosing the 
four living things — the Angel of S. Matthew and the Eagle 
of S. John above, the Bull of S. Luke and the Lion of S. 
Mark below, each having a nimbus. 

In two long lines converging towards the centre of the 
picture are the twenty-four Elders, each wearing a crown, 
and in some cases it is possible to make out their harps. 
Where these two lines meet are two vessels, " the two 
golden phials full of colours, which are the prayers of the 
saints." Behind each of the lines of elders are grouped 
saints and angels. The Lamb has been found worthy to 
open the book, and the four-and-twenty Elders sing their 
new song of praise. Judgment is set, and the seals are 
about to be opened. The method of representing the 
Child is unusual. 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 199 

(hh.) This fresco is very much destroyed. It probably 
represents the scene immediately preceding the sealing of 
the servants of God. Four angels stand outside the walls 
of a city. They are the four angels standing on the four 
corners of the earth, holding the four winds, who receive 
the command to hurt nothing until the sealing of the 
hundred and fourty-four thousand has been finished. 

(kk.) The Seven Angels preparing to sound the Seven 
Trumpets. In the upper part of the picture Christ sits in 
an almond-shaped aureole. He shows the wounds of the 
Passion. To the R. are three angels with trumpets, 
and to the l. there are four. In the lowest part of the 
picture there are a number of saints kneeling in adoration, 
the principal figure of the group to the l. being a Fran- 
ciscan. In the centre is an altar, at the side an angel 
floats in the air, probably he who had the golden censer, 
having incense which he offers " with the prayers of all the 
saints upon the golden altar which was before the throne " 
(Rev. viii. 3). 

(mm.) Probably the Fall of Babylon. The city has 
" become the habitation of devils and the hold of every 
foul spirit, and a cage of every unclean and hateful bird " 
(Rev. xviii. 2). 

(nn.) Another scene from the Apocalypse, almost entirely 
destroyed. 

(00.) The wall to the l. is covered with a large picture 
of the Crucifixion. In spite of its ruinous state, there is a 
great air about this fresco. It gives a sense of strength and 
power, and it must in its original state have been one of the 
most striking of the whole series of works in the upper 
church. The figure on the cross has the feet divided ; the 
waist cloth is ample, and seems to flutter in the breeze. 
There is some attempt to realise the anatomy of the body, 
with the unpleasant result often seen in early pictures. 
The eyes appear to be closed. Angels fly through the air 
as in the picture in the right transept. At the foot of 
the cross, to the l., there is a woman who throws herself 
into an attitude of wild despair, while another figure gathers 



2 oo ASSIS1 

his robes about him and stretches out his arm with the air 




Plan XII. — Left Transept of the Upper 
Church of San Francesco, Assisi 

of a Roman orator. The group of women are well placed, 
and they have a good effect. 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 201 

The Choir. — These pictures are usually ascribed to 
Cimabue. 

The upper church was dedicated in the name of S. Maria 
Assunta in Cielo. It is therefore natural that the life of 
the Virgin should be painted in the choir. 

The history of Mary also forms a continuation of the 
history on the l. wall of the nave, in so far as it leads to 
the consummation of the bond of union between mankind 
and Christ in His human relations. 

The frescoes are in great part only shadows, and some of 
the subjects can only be doubtfully determined. 

(Plan XIII., p. 202) (a.) Uncertain subject. 

(b.) A striking landscape ; subject uncertain. 

(c.) Perhaps the Nativity of the Virgin. 

(d.) Perhaps the Betrothal of Joseph and Mary. 

(e.) The Apostles assembled at the deathbed of the 
Virgin. Mary being seized with a strong desire to be with 
her Son, an angel made known her approaching end. She 
asked that she might be allowed to see her sons and 
brethren the Apostles before she died, and they were 
miraculously brought from the various countries where 
they were preaching. 

(f.) After the Apostles were gathered, Christ came in the 
night with the choirs of Patriarchs, Martyrs, Confessors, 
and Virgins. They all made songs and music around the 
Virgin, and in the morning the soul left the body and was 
carried up in the arms of Christ. 

(g.) The Assumption of the Virgin. The body having 
been laid in a tomb by the order of Christ, the Apostles 
watched beside it. The fresco shows three ranks of 
those who waited. Nearest to the tomb are saints, each 
with bare head and a circular nimbus. The other 
ranks are crowned and nimbed. On the third day 
Christ appeared and asked how He ought to do honour 
to His Mother ? It was answered that as Christ had 
conquered death and reigned for ever over the world, 
He should raise His Mother and set her on His right 
hand. We see the empty tomb, and over the ranks of 



202 



ASSISI 



saints Christ and the Virgin rise up in an aureole^ sup- 
ported by angels. 




(h.) Christ and the Virgin in Glory. 
In the galleries and the arcading above these pictures 
there are to the l. two angels with Madonna, and three 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 203 

nimbed saints below, and to the R. three Apostles (?) 
with ecclesiastics below. 

The stalls are adorned with elaborate intarsiatura, 
representing amongst other things famous Franciscans. 
To the l. of the papal throne S. Francis , to the R. S. 
Anthony of Padua. Facing into the transept to the l. 
the Archangel Gabriel, to the R. Madonna. The arms 
of the papal throne are formed of lions in red marble 
with the ox and calf under them ; beneath the upper step 
are the asp and basilisk. There is some decoration in 
marble and gold mosaic, other parts are painted in imita- 
tion. The high altar has been decorated with the same 
kind of work, some of which has been replaced by 
painting. 

The pulpit, near to the high altar, is an exceedingly 
florid piece of fourteenth-century sculpture. On it are 
figures of SS. Francis, Anthony of Padua, and Louis of 
Toulouse. Foliage, dentils, rosettes, all the apparatus 
of the period has been lavished on it, the gables of the 
niches are crocketed, the pillars have spiral grooves with 
dentils or twining growth of vine, the capitals are gilt 
and many of the details have been painted. 



Frescoes in the Right Transept 

These frescoes are usually ascribed to Cimabue. 

This part of the church was dedicated in the name of the 
Apostles, who are painted in the galleries, six on each side 
of the transept, (r.) The two lines are headed by SS. 
Peter and Paul. They are tall, striking figures, finely 
draped, and there is no tendency to make the heads 
unduly large. 

Below are various Acts of the Apostles. 

(Plan XIV., p. 204) (s.) Probably the healing of the lame 
man by SS. Peter and John at the Beautiful gate of the 
Temple. 

(t.) Probably a record of works of healing such as are 



204 ASSISI 

described in Acts v« 6 : " There came also a multitude out 




Plan XIV.— Right Transept of the Upper Church of 
San Francesco, Assisi 

of the cities round about unto Jerusalem; bringing sick folk 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 205 

and them which were vexed with unclean spirits, and they 
were healed every one." 

(u.) Death of Simon Magus. Simon being in favour 
with the Emperor Nero, and having by enchantment 
worked various seeming miracles, was withstood by SS, 
Peter and Paul. As a final effort to defeat the Apostles 
he announced that he would ascend into heaven. He 
climbed a high tower on the Capitol, and threw himself off. 
He was supported by devils until S. Peter commanded them 
to let him go, and then he fell and died. The Roman 
Emperor (?), attended by soldiers, watches the scene. 

(v.) Crucifixion of S. Peter under the Emperor Nero. 
St Peter willed to be crucified head downwards, as he said 
it was not fitting that he should die as Christ had done. It 
is usually supposed that the pyramid in the picture repre- 
sents that of Cestius in Rome. 

(w.) Destroyed. Little can be seen except a rocky 
landscape. 

(x.) At the sides of the window there are remains of a 
fresco showing S. Paul, probably before Nero. After the 
Apostle had confessed Christ, the Emperor ordered him to 
be beheaded. 

(y.) A Crucifixion. The figure on the cross is large and 
heavy, the eyes are closed, there is no inscription over the 
head, and the feet are separated. The lance and sponge 
bearers are in their usual places. Madonna falls fainting 
into the arms of those about her. The disposition of the 
crowd of figures is not well managed . Angels fly round the 
Christ, and one of them catches the blood from the side. 

(z.) In the lunette above the Crucifixion is the remains of 
a picture of the Transfiguration. 

(aa.) The fresco in the lunette opposite has been 
destroyed. 

Frescoes on the Upper Part of the Walls of 

the Nave 

The Series of Old Testament subjects have been assigned 
p 



206 ASSIS1 

to Pietro CavaUini or painters under his direction ; in 
connection with the New Testament series certain re- 
semblances to the work of Jacopo Torriii have been 
suggested. 

(Plan XV., p. 208) A. God Creates the World. He 
appears in the act of blessing. Round about Him there 
is a double circle of light ; in the inner circle there are 
angels, in the outer some faint traces suggest symbols of 
the heavens which the angels move and guide. Below 
this central figure the Dove, with a circular nimbus, floats 
over the water. To the l. of the Dove is a symbol of the 
sun, and to the R. that of the moon. In the water there 
are fish of many kinds ; on the land there are plants and 
trees, with birds resting in the branches. Four-footed 
beasts are represented by sheep, etc. Creation is complete 
except for man. 

B. God animates the form of Adam. This fresco is 
much damaged. 

C. Creation of Eve. 

D. Temptation and Fall. Little more than the fine 
figure of Adam is left. It is of good proportion, and shows 
artistic capacity. 

E. The Expulsion from Paradise. The figures of Adam 
and Eve are inferior to the single figure of Adam in the 
Temptation. The action of the angel is exaggerated. 

F. G, H. Destroyed. 

The lower series from the Old Testament begin again at 
the end nearest the transept. 

K. Noah building the Ark. The hand of God appears in 
the sky warning Noah to build the Ark. Noah is seated 
overlooking his sons, who work with nervous energy. 

L. The Entering into the Ark. This fresco is much 
destroyed. 

M. Sacrifice of Isaac. The child is bound hand and foot 
on an altar of elaborate construction. Abraham's left hand 
rests on the child's head, his right arm is raised, and he 
wields a scimitar with a vigour and goodwill that is de- 
cidedly repulsive. 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 207 

N. Three Angels appear to Abraham. The fresco is 
much damaged; but two of the Angels are still to be seen. 
The staid gravity and dignity of expression and bearing in 
the principal angel is very striking. They have heavily 
braided hair, and immense wings crudely coloured as we 
see them now. The figure of Abraham kneeling before 
the angels is nearly gone. 

0. The Deception of Isaac. The figure of Isaac is almost 
destroyed, and of Rebecca, who superintends the deceit, 
little more than the face is left. Jacob has a nimbus, his 
hands are covered with skin, and his father feels them to 
make sure of the identity of his son. The figure of Jacob is 
a remarkably fine example of the work which was done 
before the time of Giotto. There is in it a high sense of 
quality and style. 

P. Esau brings food to his Father. The blind patriarch 
is finely rendered. Esau, and a woman who stands 
looking on, are of a poor type. 

Q. Joseph put into a pit by his brethren. This fresco 
is nearly destroyed. A few sheep may be seen on the rocks. 

R. Joseph's brethren kneel before him. A servant in 
the background shows the gold cup which has been found 
in Benjamin's sack. 

The New Testament Series on the l. wall of the nave : 

S. The Annunciation. Almost entirely gone. 

T. Destroyed. 

U. The Nativity. The Virgin reclines in a fashion 
usually associated with Byzantine design. The Child 
lies at the mouth of the cave, and behind are the ox and 
the ass. Joseph sits with his head resting on one hand. 
Over the roof of the cave the angels sing the " Gloria in 
excelsis," and one of them announces the birth to the 
shepherds, who look up in questioning wonder. Sheep 
browse in the foreground. 

V. Destroyed. Probably the Adoration of the Magi was 
represented . 

W. Presentation in the Temple. This fresco is nearly 
destroyed. 



2o3 ASSISI 

X. Flight into Egypt. Destroyed. 
Y. Christ with the Doctors in the Temple. Much 
damaged. 

Z. Baptism of Christ. Much damaged. 




New Testament scenes in the lower course, beginning at 
the transept end of the wall : 

AA. The Marriage in Cana. An elaborate feast is set 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 2og 

out. The bride is dressed with great magnificence. She 
wears a crown and many jewels. At her side is the judge 
of the feast, represented by a form of classical type. On 
the l. are the nimbed heads of Christ and His Mother. 

BB. Destroyed. 

CC. The Betrayal. A crowded picture of inferior design. 
The types are poor; and the action of Peter, who cuts off 
the servant's ear, is grotesque. 

DD. Destroyed. 

EE . The Bearing of the Cross . May be j ust d iscerned . 

FF. The Crucifixion. This picture is in very poor 
condition. 

GG. The Entombment. The Mother bends over her 
Son's head. S. Mary Magdalene raises one of His feet. 
S. John takes a hand. Two finely draped women stand 
in the background. Angels weep and wail in the sky. 
The fresco is much damaged. 

HH. The three Maries at the Tomb. Nearly destroyed. 

The series is continued on the end wall of the nave : 

KK. The Ascension of Christ. Christ is seen rising into 
the heavens. An angel of fine design, and with brilliant 
wings, exhorts the Apostles. 

LL. Descent of the Holy Spirit. The Dove, amidst 
rays, descends upon Madonna and the Apostles. The 
picture is badly damaged. 

Over the centre of the western door is a medallion with 
Madonna and Child, probably by Giotto. 

Above the Ascension is a bust of S. Peter, above the 
Descent of the Holy Spirit is a bust of S. Paul. 



Roof Painting and Windows 

The name of Torriti has been suggested as the possible 
painter of the group of Christ with SS. John Baptist, 
Francis, and Madonna. 

The frescoes of the four Evangelists have been associated 
with the work of Cimabue. 



210 ASSJSJ 

The four Doctors of the Latin Church have been assigned 
to Filippo Rusutli. 

The main design on the roof of the upper church is that 
in the second bay from the transept, where half-length 
pictures of Christ, S. Francis, Madonna, and S. John the 
Baptist occupy the triangular spaces of the groining. The 
spaces in the corners are filled by angels, with outstretched 
wings, standing on globes. They have carefully braided 
hair and inexpressive faces ; their robes are jewelled.. The 
principal figures have a certain stolid and fixed expression. 
The whole design shows the power which old tradition had 
upon the painter. 

The frescoes of the four Evangelists, painted on the 
vault over the crossing, belong to the native school of art, 
which had broken away from the old tradition without 
gaining facility or power in any other direction. Each 
Evangelist has a writing-table, he is attended by the usual 
symbol, and an angel inspires him for his task. The 
church architecture affords some interesting detail. The 
style has points of likeness with that of the Apocalyptic 
paintings in the northern transept. Each Evangelist is 
associated with some special part of the world, S. Matthew 
with Judea, S. Mark with Italy, S. Luke with Achaia, and 
S. John with Asia. 

On the vault at the west end of the nave the four doctors 
of the Latin Church are painted. S. Gregory is inspired 
by the Dove on his shoulder, and a monk sits opposite 
who writes to his dictation. The other doctors have books 
before them and an attendant monk sits opposite, the latter 
little more than half the size of the former. The doctors 
are enthroned on massive chairs, the attendants sit in a 
loggia, and between is a reading-desk. The accessories 
are elaborate, the furniture being decorated in the style 
of Cosmati mosaic. Everything indeed is done to increase 
the impressiveness and dignity of the figures. These four 
men embody the weight and authority of the Catholic 
Church, they personify the unbending and unyielding spirit 
of dogma. 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 211 

Between the last bay of the nave and the western wall 
of the facade of the upper church there is a small bay 
covered with an ordinary arch. On it are painted sixteen 
figures; among which may be recognised those of S. 
Francis, Sta. Chiara, SS. Dominic and Peter Martyr, 
the Bishop, S. Rufino, S. Antonio of Padua and S. Benedict. 
They are stiff, ascetic forms, representing the religious idea 
in a state of equilibrium. Though they are thus very far 
from suggesting the mendicant ideal, they have a dis- 
tinct character expressing well the rule of ecclesiastical 
authority. 

Windows — Upper Church 

Many of the windows in the upper church have fine 
glass in them. Parts of those in the choir and transepts 
are said to date from the thirteenth century, those in the 
nave belong either to the fourteenth or fifteenth ; there are 
also modern restorations. 

The windows in the choir and transepts may be con- 
sidered together. 

(Plan XII., p. 200) (pp.) Left transept — Creation of the 
world. 

(rr.) Left transept — History of Adam and Eve, Cain and 
Abel. 

(Plan XIIL, p. 202) (k.) To the R. in the choir — Life 
of Christ, from the meeting with the Doctors, up to the 
Betrayal. 

(m.) To the l. in the choir— Life of Christ, from the 
Bearing of the Cross, to the Descent of the Holy Spirit. 

(Plan XIV., p. 204) (bb.) Right transept — Manifestations 
of Christ between the Resurrection and Ascension. In 
the windows where the life of Christ is treated the other 
half of the window has scenes from the Old Testament, 
supposed to be typical of the event in the New Testament. 
The Descent of the Holy Spirit has opposite to it Moses 
descending from Mount Sinai ; the Resurrection, and 
Jonah cast up by the Whale ; Christ bearing the Cross, 
and Abraham taking Isaac to the Sacrifice ; the Last 



212 ASS J SI 

Supper, and the Passover ; the Transfiguration, and Moses 
with his face shining as he came from receiving the Law ; 
the Baptism of Christ, and the Crossing of the Red Sea, 
are other examples of this parallelism. 

In this way the whole history from the Creation of the 
World is worked out — ending with an epitome of the Last 
Judgment, in the design above the light in the window of 
the r. transept. The window on the New Testament wall 
of the nave nearest the choir, has scenes from the story 
of the Magi, the Slaughter of the Innocents, the Presenta- 
tion, and the Rods laid on the Altar. The design at the 
bottom of the third window from the choir on the same side 
is to be remarked for the relation between Christ and S. 
Francis and Madonna and Child. The fourth window from 
the choir on the Old Testament side of the nave has a series 
of scenes from the history of S. Francis. 

Frescoes describing the Life of S. Francis 
(Nave w alls, lower part) 

Modern critical opinion has been rather sharply divided 
on the authorship of these frescoes. According to one 
opinion, 2-19 (Plan XV., p. 208) were the work of Giotto 
himself, 20-28 being the work of an assistant, who is 
identified with the painter of an altar-piece with the figure 
of S. Cecilia. No 20, in the gallery of the Uffizi. Another 
opinion is that in 6-12 tendencies are found somewhat 
similar to tendencies in the work of Rusuttt, and that 2-5 
and 13-15 were by assistants of Giotto ; No. 1, No. 16, 
and 19-23 were by Giotto, and possibly 25-28 by the above- 
mentioned painter of the S. Cecilia altar-piece. 

Apart, however, from such differences in critical judg- 
ment, all are agreed in estimating highly the interest and 
importance of this series. 

The life of S. Francis, as painted in the upper church, 
begins with the history of the saint after his soul had been 
touched by the love of God, but before he had denied the 
world. The following account is taken mainly from Bona- 
ventura's Life of Francis. 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 213 

(Plan XV., p. 208) (a 1.) A man of simple mind meets 
Francis and two of his companions. The poor man having 
an instinctive insight into the holiness of the youth, 
spreads his cloak on the ground. Francis steps on it and 
looks at him who offers the service with a gracious air ; 
his two companions are pleased with the honour done to 
their friend, while two elder men wonder at what they 
regard as the presumption of a young man in accepting 
such a distinction. These emotions are rendered in the 
simplest and most natural way. The details of the 
figures, such as the hands and draperies, show how much 
had still to be learned. 

The scene is laid in the Piazza Grande. The temple of 
Minerva is curiously translated in terms of Gothic feeling ; 
at one side of it is a church with pointed windows and a 
campanile of the usual kind, and at the other a house with 
a series of open balconies. 

(b 2.) Francis gives his cloak to a poor nobleman. 
Through the love of God Francis has learned to love his 
neighbour. He has been touched by the world-weary and 
downcast air of the poor nobleman, and with courtly bene- 
volence he gives his cloak to him. 

High on the hill to the R. is a church and* monastery, 
and opposite are the towers of a little hill city. The horse 
from which Francis has dismounted is badly drawn, but 
the natural way in which it turns to graze at the wayside 
marks a new feeling. 

(c 3.) The Vision of the Palace. The sleeping Francis 
saw the vision of a great palace covered with banners 
and decorations bearing the cognisance of the cross. Christ 
appeared to him, and, in answer to the query as to the 
object of the palace, said, it is " for thee and thy warriors." 

Francis understood this as a call to knightly duty, and 
set out to serve a great count in Apulia. On the way he 
had another vision, in which God spoke to him, saying, 
" Francis, who can make thee into the best knight — the 
master or the servant ? " Francis replied, " The master." 
' Then," the Lord said, " why dost thou leave the master 



214 ASSISI 

for the servant ? " Francis answered, " What wilt thou 
that I should do, my Lord ? " In reply he was bidden 
to return to his home, and was taught the spiritual signi- 
fication of the vision of the palace. 

The lower part of the palace is built with pillar, lintel, and 
round arches, the upper part is in Gothic style, representing 
the change which was taking place during the thirteenth 
century. 

(d 4.) Francis, while praying in S. Damiano, hears the 
words come from the Crucified Figure on the cross, " Go, 
Francis, and repair My Church." Francis kneels in a 
loggia opening into the building. Believing that the com- 
mand was concerned with the material fabric of the church, 
he took some of his father's cloth and sold it at Foligno, so 
that he might have the means to repair S. Damiano. 

(e 5.) Francis renounces his family and his earthly 
inheritance. His father, greatly incensed with his son, 
haled him before the bishop. Francis, hearing his father 
coming, said, " Father, I am not afraid if you beat me or 
imprison me ; I am content to endure affliction and suffer- 
ing, because I deserve it for my sins." When they ap- 
peared before the bishop, so that he might renounce his 
mother's inheritance as his father desired, he humbly took 
off all his clothes but his under-garments. He threw them 
to his father, and renounced every temporal inheritance, 
whether of father or mother, saying, " Now I can say, 
c Pater Noster, qui es in ccelis.' " The bishop seeing so much 
warmth of spirit took him to his arms, and covered him 
with the folds of his mantle. And Francis took a poor 
garment from one of the bishop's labourers, and so he was 
clothed. S. Francis stands covered by the bishop's robe 
■ — in the attitude of prayer, which is answered by the 
appearance of a hand in the sky. 

As the brethren grew in numbers, Francis wrote a form 
of living in simple words, founding it in everything on the 
observance of the Gospel. When the brethren desired the 
confirmation of this writing, and yet were afraid, Francis 
saw in a vision a great tree, and he was raised up so that 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 215 

he might touch the top. It bowed its topmost branches, 
and thus was shown the condescension of the Apostolic See. 
So Francis and the brethren went to Rome and to the 
Lateran to present their petition. But the Pope was busy, 
and they were driven away. That night the Pope saw a 
vision of a palm branch that grew into a mighty tree, and 
divine wisdom showed him that this was the poor man who 
had been refused. Then Francis was sought out, and 
brought before the Pope, and some of the Cardinals doubted 
by reason of the strictness of the rule. One of them, how- 
ever, moved by the Holy Spirit, declared it was naught 
more than the Gospel. Then the Pope bade Francis pray 
that God would show them His will, and he so spake that 
the Pope knew that Christ spoke in him. That night the 
Pope had another vision, in which he saw the Church of S. 
John Lateran about to fall, and a little man came and put 
his back under it, whereby the Pope saw that it was this 
same poor man who, by teaching of holy deeds and doctrine 
should sustain the Church, and therefore he gave his appro- 
bation to the rule. 

This story is told in the frescoes, Nos. f 6 and g 7. S. 
Francis upholding the Church, in f 6, is very remarkable ; 
the figure stands out as the finest example of the new 
manner in the upper church. But it is g 7 which strikes 
the full note of the coming change in the world. 

We see on the one hand the Pope, the Cardinals, the 
Bishops, the hierarchy of the Church ; on the other, a 
group of poor men kneeling humbly, and asking for nothing 
but to be allowed to live by the rule of the Gospel. Such 
is the outward seeming, but the kneeling figure of Francis 
offering his simple words, is the embodiment of the spirit 
of individualism in opposition to the organised system of 
the Church. Men were no longer content to approach the 
truth through other men, even though they might be 
bishops or popes. The spirit within each man must 
approach the Divine Spirit for itself, and so at a later time, 
when sore pressed by ecclesiastical authority, S. Francis 
refused to accept any rule other than " that which had 



216 ASS J SI 

been mercifully shown and given " to him cc by the Lord." 
The painter has recognised this true source of spiritual 
strength, inasmuch as while the great churchmen have but 
the insignia of their office, Francis has the nimbus of 
divine power. 

(h 8.) S. Francis and the car of fire. When the brethren 
were living at Rivo Torto, Francis went to Assisi on a 
certain Saturday, so that he might preach on the next day 
in the Duomo. At night, when some of the brethren were 
asleep and others awake, they saw a car of fire, which 
passed three times through the house. Inspired by God, 
they knew that the chariot was their father Francis, and 
they perceived that the vision was granted to show that 
he was the chariot which they ought to follow as if he had 
been another Elias. 

(j 9.) The throne in heaven reserved for S. Francis. S. 
Francis and Brother Pacifico being in the deserted Church 
of S. Peter at Bovara, near Trevi, S. Francis sent the 
brother to the leper hospital, and he himself spent the 
night in the church, where he was sorely tempted . In the 
morning he was praying when Pacifico returned, and to 
this latter there was granted a vision of the thrones in 
heaven. 

It was told him that the highest had been the place of 
Lucifer, and that in his stead the humble Francis should sit 
in it. When Brother Pacifico thereafter asked Francis of 
himself, he declared that he was the greatest sinner in the 
world, and so Pacifico saw that his vision was true, and that 
Francis, by reason of his humility, was worthy to sit on the 
throne of Lucifer (" Mirror of Perfection," p. 60). 

(k 10.) The devils driven away from Arezzo. Francis, 
coining to Arezzo, found commotion and combat among 
the citizens, and he saw above the city a multitude of 
demons who were in great joy. Francis, knowing by the 
spirit that they were the cause of the trouble in the city, 
ordered Brother Silvestro that he should command these 
devils in the name of God so that immediately, by virtue 
of obedience, they should depart. And Brother Silvestro, 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 217 

going with great fervour and doing obedience to the Blessed 
Francis, the devils at once departed and the city was 
pacified. Francis, finding all in peace and concord, 
praised God that by virtue of holy humility and obedience, 
Brother Silvestro had chased away so great malignity of 
Pride. 

(1 n.) S. Francis before the Sultan. Francis, moved by 
the desire he had to shed his blood for the increase of 
faith, went into Syria and travelled to the country of the 
Sultan of Babylon. When brought before the Sultan and 
questioned as to his buisness, Francis answered, "I am sent 
by God the Most High, and not by any man of this world, 
so that I can show to thee and thy people the way of salva- 
tion and tell to thee the truth of the gospel of Christ." He 
preached with so much constancy of mind, strength of soul, 
and fervour of spirit, that the Sultan had him in great 
favour, and desired him to stay in the country. Francis 
said to the Sultan, " If thou doubt of leaving the faith' of 
Mahomet for that of Christ, command that a fire be lit so 
that thy priests and I may enter it, and according to who 
is kept safe believe thou in that faith." The Sultan, seeing 
one of his priests in flight, declared that they would not 
enter. Francis then offered to go into it by himself ; if he 
was .saved it would be proof of the truth of the religion of 
Christ, and if he were burned it would be for his sins. But 
for fear of the people the Sultan would not consent, and so 
Francis, having refused all gifts, returned to Christendom. 

The Sultan is magnificent, as one who stands above and 
beyond the rival creeds. The two Moslem priests have 
strong impressive faces ; they are moved neither by the 
spiritual appeal nor the physical terror. 

(m 12.) S. Francis in Communion with God. S. Francis 
is raised from the earth and rests on a cloud. He con- 
templates God face to face as Moses of old. His arms are 
stretched out widely as if to embrace the vision which 
appears in the sky and blesses him. A group of brethren 
below see the vision, but only with a sense of alarmed 
curiosity. 



218 ASSISI 

(n 13.) The Presepio at Greggio. In order to move 
the people to devotion and bring to mind the nativity of 
Christ, Francis ordered (after licence from the Pope) that 
with great solemnity they should bring a manger, with 
an ox and ass, into the church. Many of the brethren and 
good women were there, and many lights were lit, and 
there was much singing of holy songs. The man of God 
stood near the manger, full of tenderness, weeping tears of 
devotion and piety, and Mass was celebrated. Then 
Francis sang the gospel and preached of the nativity, and 
it was affirmed that at this point a sleeping child was seen 
in his arms. And the hay which was in the manger had 
much virtue in curing the sick. 

(o 14.) The Miraculous Spring of Water. When Francis 
was going to spend the forty days of S. Michael on the 
Monte della Vernia, being weakened by watching and by 
strife with devils, he borrowed a small ass. While they 
were on the way the countryman to whom it belonged was 
thirsty. Francis dismounted and, kneeling down, prayed 
and bade the countryman go to a certain spot, where he 
found water though none had been there before, nor has it 
been seen since. So the countryman drank, and they 
thanked God for the miracle. Vasari singles out this 
scene and says that so natural is the man who drinks that 
one might believe him to be a living person. 

Passing by the great western doors we come to — 

(p 15.) S. Francis preaching to the Birds. It is told 
that on the way to Bevagna he saw many birds, and he 
bid his companions wait while he went and preached to 
them. " My sister birds," said he, " you should be much 
bound to God, your Creator, and you should always, in 
every place, praise Him, for He has given you liberty to 
fly, and vestments double and triple, and has preserved 
your seed in the Ark of Noah, and also He keeps you in the 
air, which He has made for you, and besides this He feeds 
you and gives you the fountains and rivers to drink from, 
and valleys for your refuge. And because ye do not know 
how to spin and sew, God clothes you, therefore keep your- 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 219 

selves, my sisters, from the sin of ingratitude." When 
Francis made the sign of the cross, the birds rose up and 
spread themselves to the four quarters of the world, to 
signify that the preaching of the cross should spread every- 
where. Francis was drawing a picture of his own ideal in 
the free life of the birds, devoid of care and devoted to the 
praise of God, and the artist seems to have been moved by 
the picture of natural beauty that he was set to paint. 

(q 16.) The Death of the Lord of Celano. Francis and 
his companions having been received with joyfulness, the 
lord of th^ house was called to one side and bidden to con- 
fess and give thanks to God for all His mercies ; so giving 
heed, he put his house in order, and made ready to receive 
death. Afterwards they sat down to meat, and while eat- 
ing the lord of Celano passed from this life ; and thus it 
was shown how God holds dear those who receive His 
servants. 

(r 17.) S. Francis preaches before Honorius III. In 
order to please the Cardinal Ugolino, Francis made ready 
a sermon very diligently, but when he began to preach the 
thing went from him, and confessing what had happened, 
he prayed to the Holy Spirit, and at once there was given to 
him understanding, and he spoke with so much power that 
the Pope and Cardinals were moved. It is also said that so 
great was his fervour of spirit that he moved his feet as one 
who dances^ — not for amusement, but as overcome by 
divine joy. 

The Pope sits in a fine Gothic church, with detail suitable 
to the period. He is not the old man that Honorius really 
was, but a strong, vigorous personality in the full exercise of 
powerful capacities. The churchmen listen with an air of 
puzzled doubt ; they are fearful of what may come of this 
new doctrine. 

(s 18.) S. Francis appears at a Chapter held at Aries. 
At the Provincial Chapters, though Francis could not be 
there in body, he was ever with the brethren in spirit, and 
even sometimes in presence. At Aries, when Anthony 
preached of the Cross, it was given to Brother Monaldo 



220 ASSISI 

to see Francis in the air with his arms spread out in the 
form of a cross. 

(t 19.) S. Francis receives the Stigmata. Francis had 
the habit of never being idle ; like the angels he was always 
ascending or descending, ascending in contemplation to 
God or descending in love to his neighbour. He divided 
his energies between the active and contemplative life, and 
so two years before he died he went to keep the fast of S. 
Michael on the Monte della Vernia. 

On the day of the Exaltation of the Cross Francis saw a 
seraph with six shining wings descend from heaven. As 
he looked at it he saw between the wings the likeness of a 
crucified man. Then he was sealed with the sign of the 
wounds. Knowing that there could be no affinity between 
the immortality of the seraph and the infirmity of the 
Passion, he recognised, -that as he had always borne Christ 
and His Passion in his heart and also in his deeds, so he 
must be transformed into Christ not through martyrdom 
of the flesh but by the ardour of his soul and of his mind. 
Thus when the vision left him he was filled with the fervour 
of the love of Christ, and on his body was the mark of the 
wounds of Christ. 

(u 20.) The Death of S. Francis. Francis, knowing of 
the day of his death, desired to be carried down to Sta. 
Maria degli Angeli. Having taken off his clothes he lay 
down on the ground, and, with his face turned to heaven, 
he said, " I have done that which I had to do ; may our 
Lord Jesus teach you so that you may be strong in His love 
and service." He thanked God that as Christ had been 
naked on the cross so he at his end was poor and naked. 
When the hour of his death had come he bade his brethren 
that they should observe Patience and Poverty and the 
faith of the Holy Roman Church, and, above all things, 
the Holy Gospel. He blessed them, saying, " To God I 
commend you all, that you may obey and fear Him, that 
you may be strong in temptation, and constant in virtue, 
and do what is just to your neighbours." When they had 
read from the Gospel and from the Psalms, that most holy 



THE CHURCH OF S. FRANCESCO 221 

soul left the body and was received into the light of Eternal 
Life. 

The dead man is surrounded by his sorrowing brethren; 
and in the background the clergy are collected ready to 
perform the usual rites. In the sky there is the soul of 
Francis pictured as a youth borne to heaven in an aureole 
of light ; and supported by four angels ; other angels 
to R. and L. attend them. The picture is a good deal 
damaged; but it shows that the painter had overcome 
many of the technical difficulties that beset the artists of 
the early fourteenth century. 

(v 21.) The Vision of the Bishop of Assisi and of Brother 
Agostino. The bishop having gone on a pilgrimage to 
Monte GarganO; Francis appeared to him as he slept at 
Beneventuni; and said; " I leave the world and go to 
heaven with great joy." When he returned to Assisi the 
bishop knew that the time of his vision was the same as 
that at which Francis had passed from this life. At the 
same time a certain Brother Agostino ; who had been lying 
waiting for death; and without power of speech; suddenly 
rose up crying; " Wait; father; wait. Behold; I come with 
thee." 

(w 22.) The Verification of the Stigmata. In the upper 
part of the fresco^ are pictures resting on a beam in the 
church wherein the scene is laid. To the l.. Madonna and 
Child ; in the centre ; a crucifix ; and to the r., an angel. 
Below lies the body of S. Francis, the service for the dead 
is being read; and in the background are a number of 
clergy and lay people; for many came to see and be assured 
of the Miracle of the Stigmata. Among these was a noble 
knight full of doubt even like the Apostle Thomas. And 
when he had seen and moved the nails with his hand; and 
also the wound in the side; in the presence of many seculars 
and religion S; they were all certain of that of which they 
were in doubt. 

(x 23.) Sta. Chiara salutes the dead Francis as the pro- 
cession passes by S. Damiano. 

On the morning after Francis died a great crowd from 

Q 



2±z ASSISI 

the city and the country came, and with great solemnity 
of canticles and hymns, and the divine office, and a multi- 
tude of torches and candles, they carried the body to 
Assisi. When they came to S. Damiano, Chiara and her 
holy sisters were consoled by seeing and kissing the holy 
body of their father Francis, ornamented with the holy 
Stigmata, and clear and shining. 

(y 24.) Canonisation of S. Francis. Pope Gregory IX., 
having heard of the many miracles done by Francis 
throughout his life and after his death, took * counsel 
whether to canonise the body or no. He sent certain 
Cardinals to search out the miracles whether they were 
true, and they, having found that these things were so, 
the Pope came with great solemnity to Assisi, and on the 
eighth day before the Kalends of June 1228 the most holy 
body of the saint was canonised. This fresco is very much 
damaged. 

(z 25.) The Doubt of Pope Gregory is resolved. Pope 
Gregory IX. (the Cardinal Ugolino) having canonised S. 
Francis, was still in doubt about the Stigmata. Whence 
one night there appeared to him S. Francis with a severe 
countenance showing anger, and he reproved Gregory for 
the hardness of his heart. Lifting up his arm he showed 
the wound, and when S. Francis had gathered the blood 
from it in a phial he passed out of sight. And by this the 
Pope had no more doubt. 

(aa 26). A certain woman greatly devoted to S. Francis 
died with some sin unconfessed. Suddenly, when her 
kinsfolk and the priest were watching, she rose up and 
told them that S. Francis had obtained grace for her, that 
the soul might return to the body until she had confessed. 
So it was, that after confession her body fell dead, as before, 
and her soul was freed from great punishment. 

(bb 27.) A certain man, Giovanni, was wounded so 
sorely that the doctor could do nothing for him, and when 
there was no more hope S. Francis appeared and said, 
" Because of thy faith in the Virgin Mary and me, God wills 
that thou should be freed from this evil." S. Francis 



OTHER CHURCHES 223 

touched the wounds with the hands which bore the mark 
of the Stigmata ; and they were healed. 

(cc 28.) A certain Peter having been condemned for 
heresy was given to the keeping of the Bishop of Tivoli. 
Peter having laid down every error and prayed to S. 
Francis; the latter appeared to him in prison. The chains 
fell from the prisoner's limbs; and the door was opened. 
When the bishop told the Cardinals and the Pope what 
had happened; they praised God and the blessed S. Francis; 
and let the man go. 



OTHER CHURCHES 
The Church of Sta. Chiara 

[This was the church raised in honour of the saint after 
her death. 

The building was begun in 1257 upon a piece of ground 
beside the old parish church of S. Giorgio, which was in- 
corporated in the new structure. The hospital belonging 
to S. Giorgio became the convent to which the " poor 
ladies " were transferred from S. Damiano. 

It was in the parish church that S. Francis had learned 
- to read and write, and it was here that his body lay until 
the Church of S. Francesco was built. 

The main incidents in the life of Sta. Ghiara of which 
we have any record; are as follows : — She was the daughter 
of Favorino Scin ; a noble ; whose castle stood on the out- 
skirts of Assisi in the direction of the Career! . Sta. Chiara 
had listened to the preaching of S. Francis. She was in- 
spired with an enthusiasm for the ideal of life which he 
set before men. She determined to follow his example, 
to leave everything; and to take up the life of holy poverty. 
S. Francis advised her to make the definite renunciation 
on Palm Sunday of the year 12 12. In the Cathedral; on 
the morning of that day; she remained kneeling in prayer 
while the rest of the congregation went up to the altar to 



224 ASSlSl 

receive the branches of palms. Thereupon the bishop 
himself came towards her and placed the palm in her hand. 

That night she left her father's house and went down to 
the Porziuncola, where she was received by Francis. She 
changed her dress for a plain grey habit, her hair was shorn 
off, and thus she marked her renunciation of the world and 
her determination to become a servant of the poor. 

Soon after she was joined by her sister Agnes, by her 
mother Ortolana, and by some members of another noble 
family, the Ubaldini. They received the chapel and con- 
vent of S. Damiano from S. Francis, and here they lived a 
laborious life of devotion, observing strictly the rule of 
poverty. Sta. Chiara died at the age of sixty. For some 
years before her death she had lost the use of her limbs, 
but this did not prevent her from continuing to labour in 
the spinning of flax, which the sisters used for making altar 
cloths. 

After her death in 1253 the community was removed for 
greater safety to S. Giorgio, within the walls of Assisi.] 

The Church of S. Chiara and the convent attached oc- 
cupy a fine position at the south-west end of the town. The 
church is built of red and white stone in the pointed style ; 
it has been thought by some that the structure is a copy 
of the upper church at S. Francesco. The thrust of the 
vaulted roof has been carried by flying buttresses straight 
to the ground in such a way that the graceful effect of the 
device is lost, although there is something fine in the 
directness and massiveness of the design. The architect 
was Fra Filippo da Campello, and the wheel window 
designed by him in the western facade is famed for its 
beauty. 

Enter the building by a side door. 

The nave shows an unbroken space with a high vaulted 
roof, the coating of whitewash which hides the frescoes 
originally painted on the walls gives an air of bleakness to 
the interior, this effect is increased by the wide span of the 
four bays. 

The only frescoes that remain visible are in the vault- 



OTHER CHURCHES 225 

ing of the roof above the high altar. The colour is light 
and harmonious and the general effect is very beautiful. 
They celebrate famous Virgins — Madonna and Child with 
S. Chiara ; SS. Cecilia and Lucia ; SS. Agnes of Rome 
and Agnes of Assisi ; SS. Catherine and Margaret. In 
the R. transept a few fragments of fresco recovered from 
whitewash have formed parts of a Flight into Egypt, 
a Massacre of the Innocents, and the translation of the 
body of Sta. Chiara. 

The Chapel of S. Agnes is on the l. side of the church ; it 
contains an interesting portrait of Sta. Chiara, said to be 
the work of Cimabue. The painting is mainly in two 
colours, red and black ; and there are eight scenes from 
the life of the saint at the sides. 

The portrait is that of a tall, middle-aged woman with a 
thin, worn face. She wears a roughly made black dress 
and hood. She has a cord round her waist, her feet are 
bare. The picture is not beautiful, but it has the appear- 
ance of being a faithful record. 

The scenes are as follows, beginning with the lowest panel 
on the l. : — 

(1.) Sta. Chiara receives a palm branch from the Bishop. 

(2.) She meets S. Francis and the Frati at the Porziun- 
cola. 

(3.) She makes her vows of renunciation, and her hair is 
cut off. 

(4.) Her parents try to force her to return to them. 

On the R., beginning at the top : 

(5.) S. Agnes joins her sister. 

(6.) Sta. Chiara blesses the bread on the occasion when 
Innocent IV. came to visit her. 

(7.) The death of the saint. 

(8.) The translation of the body from S. Damiano to 
S. Giorgio. On the opposite wall of the chapel is a picture 
of Madonna and Child, attributed by some authorities to 
Cimabue. 

Crossing the nave we enter on the R. side the Chapel 
of S, Giorgio, once the parish church, where the bodies of 



226 ASSJSI 

both S. Francis and Sta. Chiara were kept until the new 
buildings were ready. 

Over the entrance door is a crucifix of the type often 
ascribed to Margaritone : the eyes are closed , the expression 
is one of suffering, the body is contorted. Over the in- 
scription; Madonna with outspread hands is attended by 
angels. At the foot of the cross, SS. Chiara and Francis 
and B. Benedetta. Behind the altar in the Chapel of S. 
Giorgio, Deposition from the Cross, Entombment and 
Resurrection. Beneath, to the R., three-quarter-length 
pictures of S. Chiara, S. John Baptist, Madonna and Child, 
S. Michael, and S. Francis. To the l., a small panel of the 
Crucifixion with SS. Chiara and Agnes of Assisi and SS. 
Rufino and Agnes of Rome. On the wall above the entrance, 
frescoes of the Annunciation, S. George slaying the Dragon, 
the Nativity and Adoration of the Magi. On the wall 
opposite the altar a rude picture, Madonna and Child 
in the centre; to the L., Annunciation, Nativity, Adoration, 
and Presentation. To the R., Flagellation, Crucifixion, 
Deposition, Maries at the Tomb. Through a grill in the 
chapel wall visitors may see the Crucifix before which S. 
Francis was kneeling when he had the vision at S. Damiano. 
The head is erect, the arms are extended, the eyes are open. 
Beneath the arms of the cross are Madonna, S. John and 
the Maries, Magdalene, Cleophas and Salome. 

From the centre of the nave a staircase leads down to 
the crypt where the body of the saint is preserved. Another 
stairway leads up to the spot where the stone coffin con- 
taining the remains was discovered in 1850 under the high 
altar. The large blocks of stone show how much care had 
been taken to provide a secure and secret place for the safe 
keeping of the great treasure. 

The crypt is decorated with paintings in monochrome 
executed in 1862. They represent the incidents in the life 
of the saint which have already been described, and the 
subjects will be easily recognised. 

The body of Sta. Chiara, clothed in a black habit, is 
shown behind a glass window. 



OTHER CHURCHES 227 

In the Via Principe di Napoli, is the 

Cappella dei Pellegrini 

[This is the oratory attached to an hospital for the enter- 
tainment of pilgrims who come to visit the tomb of S. 
Francis. 

The chapel is dedicated in the names of S. James Major, 
the patron of pilgrims, and of S. Anthony the Abbot.] 

The frescoes on the outside wall and in the interior are 
by two artists, Matteo da Gualdo (work dated 1468) and 
Pier Antonio da Foltgno, called Mezzastris (working as late 
as [482). 

The works of Matteo da Gualdo show the influence of 
Boccati da Camerino, while Mezzastris was a scholar of 
Benozzo Gozzoli. 

The fresco on the outside wall above the door is much 
damaged. It is attributed by some to Matteo da Gualdo 
and by others to Mezzastris. 

The subject is Christ Enthroned, holding a book with the 
inscription, " I am the way and the truth." 

Round about is a glory of angels ; eight of them are 
playing instruments, four others hold scrolls with inscrip- 
tions. On either side are the titulary saints. Only half 
of the figure of S. James remains ; he carries a pilgrim's 
staff. On the R. is S. Anthony the Abbot. Round the 
corner of the building to the l. are traces of a huge figure 
of S. Christopher. 

In the Interior. On the wall opposite to the entrance 
above the altar, Matteo da Gualdo painted a Madonna 
and Child enthroned with SS. James and Anthony. In 
the lunette above, which is pierced by a window, is 
the Annunciation, with angels singing praises from the 
earth and from the heavens. At the side of the Virgin the 
artist has placed a little lion, which may have a symbolical 
reference to the Lion of Judah. 

The pictures on the side walls are by Mezzastris. On the 
R., on entering, is the story of the miraculous help given by 



228 ASSISI 

S. James Major to some pilgrims on their way to Com- 
postella. 

The son of a certain German, while journeying to the 
shrine along with his parents, was wrongfully accused of 
theft. He was condemned to be hanged, but the saint 
coming to the help of the innocent youth, placed his hand 
under the feet of the young man, who by means of this 
invisible support remained uninjured. This is the subject 
of the scene nearest to the door. 

The landscape behind the figures is curiously conven- 
tional. The colour of the mountains is a vivid pink, 
while the objects in the foreground are grotesquely out of 
proportion. No attempt is made to tell the story dramatic- 
ally. The bereaved parents, discovering after seveial 
days that their son still lived, hastened to the judge who 
had condemned him. At this point historians differ as to 
what took place. According to some, the parents finding 
the judge at table related the marvellous news that the/ 
had found their son alive. The judge* mockingly replied. 
" If your son liveth so do those fowls in the dish," and the 
roasted birds immediately rose up before him alive. Ac- 
cording to others the parents urged the innocence of their 
son before the sceptical judge, who replied, " I should as 
soon believe that these fowls were alive as in the innocency 
of the young man." At the same moment the fowls rose 
to prove his error. 

The figures seated at table are fairly natural, but the 
standing figures and those in movement are particularly 
wooden. 

Wall to the l. of entrance. Two scenes from the life 
of S. Anthony the Abbot are chosen, illustrating the charity 
of the saint. 

Nearest to the altar, we see S. Anthony distributing alms 
to the blind, the sick, and the lame. The figure of the old 
hermit is a dignified presentment, and the beggars express 
their eagerness and gratitude with natural gestures. In 
the background is a rudimentary landscape. 
The next scene describes how food was miraculously 



OTHER CHURCHES 229 

provided for the saint. Six animals, intended possibly to 
represent camels, burdened with provisions, kneel down 
before S. Anthony, who is seated at the door of a church. 
The monks grouped round him raise their hands in 
astonishment or fold them in prayer. 

In the vaulting of the roof are four figures, bishops and 
cardinals or other dignitaries of the Church. It has been 
assumed that they represent the four Latin Doctors of the 
Church, but Canon Elisei, who has written a pamphlet upon 
the chapel, thinks that the figures have a closer connection 
with the subjects illustrated on the walls. He identifies 
the Pope as Leo III., who authenticated the existence of 
the body of S. James at Compostella. The bishop to the 
l. is S. Isidore of Seville, who wrote upon the preaching 
of the Apostle in Spain. The other bishop is S. Augustine, 
the eulogiser of S. Anthony the Abbot, and the Cardinal is 
S. Bonaventura, canonised in 1482, the author of a treatise 
upon the life of the Religious. Above the door of entrance 
is the figure of Christ surrounded by kneeling angels. On 
the l. is S. James ; on the R., S. Anthony and the young 
saint Ansano, who holds his lungs in his hand. S. Ansano 
is the patron of those who suffer from pulmonary affections. 
The figure of the saint has been declared to be the work of 
Fiorenzo di Lorenzo. 

Confraternity of S. Francis 

The chapel of this confraternity is in the Via Giuseppe 
Garibaldi. On the outside, over the door, S. Francis offers 
the roses which have bloomed in the snow to Madonna, who 
sits in a mandorla with Christ — attended by many angels. 
On the side wall of the building there are some ruined fres- 
coes in monochrome. The chapel has a vaulted roof. Over 
the altar, a Crucifixion. S. Mary Magdalene kneels at the 
foot of the cross. To the R., SS. John and Francis ; to 
the l., the group of the Maries supporting Madonna, and a 
mendicant with fetters. A beautiful garden with a fine 
view over the valley opens out of the hall of the fraternity. 



230 ASSIST 

MONUMENTS CONNECTED WITH THE LIFE OF 
S. FRANCIS 

Chiesa Nuova 

A small street leading out of the southern corner of the 
Piazza Vittorio Emmanuele takes us to the Chiesa Nuova, 
a church raised on the side of the house which belonged to 
Pietro Bernardone, the father of S. Francis. 

A portion of a wall, with an arch above a door, are shown 
as a part of the old dwelling-house. A niche in this wall is 
pointed out as the place where S. Francis was shut up by 
his father. 

In the alley on the north side of the church is the little 
Cappella di S. Francesco, built on the site of a stable where 
S. Francis was born. The legend that his birth took place 
in a stable is probably due to the parallel which was drawn 
between the life of the saint and that of Christ. 

S. Maria Maggiore. Opening out of the Via Giuseppe 
Garibaldi is the church and piazza of S. M. Maggiore and the 
palace of the bishop. Note the simple form of the wheel 
window in the facade of the church. An inscription in the 
antechamber of the palace records the refusal of Francis to 
be bound by family ties. It is the traditional site of the 
scene in which Francis laid his clothes at the feet of his 
father, and declared that henceforth " I only say our 
Father in heaven." 

About two miles from Sta. Maria degli Angeli, on the 
road to Spello, there is the church which has been known as 
that of Rivo Torto, the place to which S. Francis and his 
brethren went on their return from receiving the approba- 
tion of Pope Innocent III. In the church some small 
cells are shown which have been said to be those used by S. 
Francis. It is now believed that this church is not the 
place connected with the life of the brethren. 

The small church or rather chapel of S. Giovanni d'Arce 
has by some been supposed to represent the Rivo Torto of 
the time of S. Francis. Leave the town by the Porta S. 



MONUMENTS OF LIFE OF S. FRANCIS 231 

Pietro and follow the path under the walls (or leave the 
town by the Porta Moiano) and follow one of the many 
rough country roads or paths which intersect the fields, 
keeping the tower of the modern Church of Rivo Torto in 
view, and steering towards it, an easy and beautiful walk 
of an hour or an hour and a quarter will bring the visitor 
to within half-a-mile of the modern Rivo Torto. At this 
point ask at any of the farmhouses and directions will be 
readily given to S. Giovanni d'Arce. 

Over the altar, Baptism of Christ ; on the l. wall, 
Madonna and Child ; below, SS. Sebastian, Rocco, and 
Anthony of Padua. On the r. wall an Immaculate Con- 
ception. 

The return walk to the town may be made by way of 
the small Chapel of S. Masseo, in which there are some 
interesting Romanesque details. Directions must be 
asked for from time to time. Farmhouses are numerous, 
and the visitor may rely on willing courtesy. 

The Hermitage of the Carceri 

This small convent is built on the sides of Monte Subasio. 
The path leaves Assisi by the gate at the end of the town 
farthest from S. Francesco, and from this point one or one 
and a half hours ought to be allowed for the walk. 

Originally a little chapel was built here by the Benedic- 
tines, and since the time of Francis a network of small 
chapels, a few sleeping cells, and a refectory have existed. 
In the woods round about there are caves associated with 
the names of the early Franciscans, and to these places they 
retired for solitary contemplation. Perhaps here more than 
elsewhere it is possible to realise the daily life of the early 
Franciscans, and nowhere else is the sense of primitive 
simplicity so complete. 

The visitor enters a small courtyard, in the centre of 
which is a well said to have been built by S. Bernardino of 
Siena, the spring itself being the result of a miracle worked 
by S. Francis. From this court we enter the chapel called 



232 ASSISI 

after S. Bernardino ; it is some 21 feet long by 16 feet 
broad. In it are preserved relics of S. Francis : 

1. The tabernacle for the Sacrament used in his time. 

2. A chalice of the same period. 

3. A pillow used by S. Francis. 

4. The cord of Brother Egidio. 

5. The cross and hair shirt of S. Francis. 

At the end of the chapel are five little stalls, the second of 
which is traditionally assigned to S. Francis. 

From this comparatively large chapel we pass into the 
Cappella Primitiva. This is said to have been the first 
chapel used by S. Francis ; it has no window, and is only 
about 12 feet long by 6 feet broad. 

To the l., three steps lead up into the choir of S. Ber- 
nardino ; round it there are twelve stalls, and besides these 
there is room for nothing but a reading stand. The 
sacristy which serves for all these chapels is about 6 feet 
by 4 feet 6 inches, and it is lighted by a window no larger 
than a pane of glass. At the entrance to the sacristy there 
is a trap-door, and passing down about fifteen steps the 
chamber of S. Francis is reached. Like many other parts 
of the building, it rests on the live rock. The space occu- 
pied by the bed is shown. The room measures about 9 feet 
by 6 feet. Next to this bed space is an oratory where 
S. Francis prayed. 

The doors by which these chambers are entered are so 
small that no ordinary person can stand upright, and the 
width is strictly in proportion. Outside the oratory is an 
opening leading down into the gorge below it ; it was by 
this passage that the devil escaped when he tempted S. 
Francis and was beaten off by the saint. 

Returning to the monastery the small bed-chambers 
built against the rock may be seen. Below these is the 
refectory. At the end of one of the tables the place of S. 
Bernardino is shown. The wooded gorge in which the 
conventual buildings stand is most picturesque, and the 



MONUMENTS OF LIFE OF S, FRANCIS 233 

views over the vale of Spoleto, both from the convent and 
from the path leading to it, are exceedingly fine. 

The Church of S. Damiano 

[The Church of S. Damiano is an almost unchanged 
record of the primitive surroundings amongst which S. 
Francis and his early followers passed their lives. 

The simple chapel with its rough,, coarse furniture and the 
tiny dwelling-rooms attached are just such as they were 
when Sta. Chiara and the women who followed her example 
lived here a life of holy poverty. The followers of Francis 
were not at first divided into orders, and there was no 
definite organisation. The life which the master himself 
led was the pattern followed by the disciples, and simple 
rules were given to them by him to meet the conditions as 
they arose. 

S. Damiano is associated with two momentous ex- 
periences in the spiritual life of S. Francis. It was here 
that he first devoted himself to the service of God, and it 
was in the work of restoring the ruined church that he 
made himself equal to the humblest. 

During the time when he had become dissatisfied with his 
way of life, but had not resolved to separate himself from it, 
he went frequently to pray in the old chapel. While kneel- 
ing before a Byzantine crucifix he believed that he heard 
a voice saying, " Francis, go and restore My Church." 

Obeying the command literally, the young man sold 
some of his father's cloth in the market at Foligno and 
came back to S. Damiano with the money, which he offered 
to the priest. 

This act was decisive in separating him from his old life, 
for in order to escape from the anger of his father he left his 
home and took refuge in the chapel. When summoned by 
the magistrates of Assisi, at the instance of his father, he 
replied that as he had become the servant of the Church 
it was before the ecclesiastical tribunal that he should 
appear. 



234 ASSISI 

The bishop advised him to renounce all that he owned 
from his parents. Francis, fulfilling the injunction to the 
letter, stripped off his clothes and laid them at his father's 
feet, with the words, " Now I can say, ' Our Father, who 
art in heaven.' " 

Soon after this he began the labour of restoring the 
Chapel of S. Damiano. He went from door to door beg- 
ging for money or for materials for the building, carrying 
the stones which were given to him upon his shoulders. 
The work of restoration was finished about the year 1208. 
S. Damiano is associated not only with S. Francis but with 
Sta. Chiara, the first woman who adopted the Franciscan 
rule. 

The chapel had been given to S. Francis by the Benedic- 
tine monks of Monte Subasio, and it became the home of 
Sta. Chiara soon after her act of renunciation in 12 12. 
Within a short time she was joined by a few other women, 
and they received from S. Francis a rule of life very similar 
to that which was given to the brethren. S. Francis under- 
took that he and his followers should supply all the wants 
of the sisters, either by their labour or by the gathering 
of alms. In exchange, Sta. Chiara and her companions 
rendered service to the brethren by tending the sick and by 
making fair linen bloth for the furnishing of the altars of 
poor churches. 

S. Damiano preserves various records of the life of 
labour and devotion spent by the " Poor Clares " within 
its walls, but there is no visible record of the visit which S. 
Francis paid when he composed the " Canticle of the Sun." 
It was in 1224 that the saint, on his return from Monte 
della Vernia, spent some weeks in a little reed hut which 
Sta. Chiara had built for him in the garden. 

Francis was suffering not only in body but also in mind. 
He was weighed down by illness, his sight w T as almost gone, 
and he was burdened with a sense of discouragement. The 
generalship of the order had been resigned to others two or 
three years before, and Francis now found himself in con- 
tinual conflict with the more politic and more worldly 



MONUMENTS OF LIFE OF S. FRANCIS 235 

schemes of the leaders. In the garden of S. Damiano, in 
the midst of the familiar scenes of his first enthusiasm, 
something of his old fervid joy in living came back to him, 
and he composed the " Canticle of the Sun." In this song 
he praises God for the goodness of living, for the sun, moon, 
stars, water, wind, fire, and earth. We and they are parts 
of the same creation. They are our helpful brothers and 
sisters. He thanks God also for His love and mercy, and 
lastly for His gift of our sister Death. 

The author, well pleased with his song, began to lay 
plans how some of the brethren should be sent out as 
" Joculatores Domini," minstrels of God, and should sing 
the praises of the created things everywhere. After hav- 
ing preached and sung he wished that they should say to 
the people, " All the payment that we want is that you 
should persevere in penitence."] 

The church stands on the slope of the hill about half-a- 
mile beyond the walls of the town. The approach to the 
inconspicuous building is by a steep path through an olive 
garden. 

There is a little courtyard in front of the church, and 
entering it, we see in front of us on the end wall of the 
building a damaged fresco illustrating an incident in the 
life of Sta. Chiara. 

In 1234 a body of Saracen troops, led by one of the 
generals of Frederick II., passed through Umbria, attack- 
ing and pillaging the towns as they went. On their way 
to Assisi they came to the Convent of S. Damiano, and 
began to assail the building. The soldiers were already 
mounting the ladders raised against the walls when Sta. 
Chiara, carrying the Pix containing the Host in front of 
her, appeared at the little window. Kneeling down she 
began to sing, " Thou hast rebuked the heathen, Thou hast 
put out their name for ever and ever." At the sound of her 
fearless voice the assailants, abashed and discomfited, 
withdrew from the attack and left both the convent and 
the city unmolested. 

Under the portico, to the R. of the entrance into the 



238 ASS1SI 

On the hillsides surrounding Assisi there are many field 
paths and rough country roads which give an opportunity 
for charming walks. 

Follow the line of the old wall below the Hotel Subasio 
and the convent of S. Francesco, cross the bridge, take 
the well-made road that rapidly rises out of the valley. 
Above the first houses follow the road to the l. ; this 
gradually becomes a path. It rises steadily and will lead 
the visitor round the R. shoulder of the hill, covered with 
olives, oak scrub, and aromatic undergrowth. The views 
towards Perugia are unimpeded, and they are of great 
beauty. In returning to Assisi, the convent, the town, and 
the castle are seen in an unusually picturesque combina- 
tion. 

Another equally fine walk may be taken by turning to 
the R. after crossing the bridge mentioned in the previous 
note, and climbing the hill by paths passing a number of 
farmhouses. At the top of the hill there is a farm and a 
small chapel. The view is extensive and very interesting. 

From S. Damiano and the S.-W. end of the town many 
beautiful paths may be followed in the direction of Spello. 

The Church of Sta. Maria degli Angeli and the 
Porziuncola 

The Church of Sta. Maria degli Angeli, which forms such 
an imposing feature in the Vale of Spoleto, is only a few 
minutes' walk from the station at Assisi. 

Under the great dome are two buildings of supreme 
interest in the history of S. Francis, viz., the chapel of the 
Porziuncola, or the " little portion," and the cell in which 
the saint died. 

According to tradition the Chapel of the Porziuncola 
was originally built by four pilgrims, so that they might 
place in it a relic of the tomb of the Virgin which had been 
given to them by S. Cyril of Jerusalem. This first chapel 
of the pilgrims is supposed to have been built in a.d. 352. 
and its name, S. Mary of the Angels, has been attributed 



MONUMENTS OF LIFE OF S. FRANCIS 239 

to the picture which they caused to be painted in it — an 
Assumption of the Virgin surrounded by angels. 

Another account is that the name arose because the 
songs of angels were often heard in the place, and especi- 
ally on the night of the birth of S. Francis, 26th September 
1182. 

In 516 S. Benedict found the first sanctuary abandoned, 
and he is said to have rebuilt it for some brethren of his 
order. According to some accounts it received the name 
of Porziuncola, or " little portion," as being so small and 
unimportant among the Benedictine foundations. 

After the restoration of S. Damiano Francis began to 
work on the Chapel of the Porziuncola, and when the 
brethren increased in number he begged the Abbot of 
Monte Subasio to let him have it, so that there might be a 
place in which the brethren could say the office. 

In so far as such an one could be said to have a home, the 
neighbourhood of the Porziuncola was the home of Francis, 
and he always desired that this chapel should be a pattern 
in its poverty for all the other places of the brethren. 

The Life of S. Francis at Sta. Maria degli Angeli. The 
earliest disciple that S. Francis had was Bernard of Quinta- 
valle, and it is told in the Fioretti how their first act of 
companionship, after hearing Mass together, was to open 
the missal and take counsel from the passages they found. 

Three times this was done, and their rule of life was 
founded on the three messages : "If thou wilt be perfect 
go and sell that thou hast and give to the poor " ; " Take 
nothing for your journey, neither stave nor scrip, neither 
bread neither money " ; and lastly, " If any man will 
come after Me, let him deny himself and take up his cross 
and follow Me." On this " firm rock of the exceeding 
great humility and poverty of the Son of God " was built 
the fabric of the Franciscan order. The character of S. 
Francis was too simple, too direct, and too shrewd to allow 
him to bring this teaching into conformity with the ordinary 
methods of mankind. He accepted the sayings in their 
plain and literal meaning, and whatever stood in the way 



2 4 o ASSISI 

of their realisation he put away from him. Property 
meant servitude to material things ; it caused a diversion 
of energy from the true aim of life ; it brought with it 
temptation to covetousness and avarice ; it was a hind- 
rance to that true liberty of soul in which alone the spiritual 
life can thrive. 

Learning was even more dangerous than riches. In get- 
ting knowledge mind and body were tempted beyond the 
way of humility ; dependence on the understanding, even 
if it were of Scripture, would in time of trial lead only to 
coldness and emptiness. The body also was a source of 
temptation. Superfluity of food was a hindrance to body 
and soul ; and, on the other hand, too much abstinence 
was a temptation into which S. Francis admitted he had 
himself fallen. 

Patient and loving endurance of wrong, an obedience 
" wherein flesh and blood have naught of their own," 
poverty that leaves the soul a true spiritual freedom, and 
humility leading to the knowledge and understanding of 
God, such were the means by which S. Francis strove to 
imitate the life of Christ. 

He never shrank from his fellow-men, he did not fear 
contact with the world, he only desired to strip life of all 
that obscures the real aim in living. 

Many brethren joined S. Francis, although few followed 
him. From the first difficulties arose : some found the 
rule too severe, and others who felt a true vocation could 
not reconcile the strongly developed personality of the 
religion of S. Francis with the claims of the hierarchy and 
the system of the Church. Yet he was always ready to be 
in subjection to the clergy. He refused to ask for a privi- 
lege to preach, he bade his followers wait in humility until 
they were called ; and in regard to doctrine he was a faith- 
ful son of the Church. 

But a man who would take no thought for the morrow, 
who would own neither breviary nor psalter, who rejected 
learning, and begged his daily bread, who refused to accept 
the rule of S. Benedict, or S. Augustine, or S. Bernard, and 



MONUMENTS OF LIFE OF S. FRANCIS 241 

who would follow only the way that had been shown to 
him by the Lord, must have been a severe trial to the 
faith of politicians and churchmen like Innocent III. and 
the Cardinal Ugolino. The latter, who became Pope as 
Gregory IX. , was deeply touched by the spirituality and 
simplicity of S. Francis, nevertheless he spared no pains 
to bring the brethren within the influence and order of 
ecclesiastical authority. 

It was in the Chapel of the Porziuncola that the second 
order of the Franciscans originated in the dedication of 
Sta. Chiara. Having been touched by the preaching of 
Francis, she left her father's house, and in the Holy Week 
of 12 12 she was received by him in the little chapel. Her 
hair was cut off, and she gave herself as a servant of the 
poor. 

Years afterwards, desiring to eat with Francis, Sta. 
Chiara met her spiritual father in front of the Porziuncola, 
and for the first beginning of refreshment, Francis spoke 
of God with such sweetness and so marvellously that 
they were wrapt in contemplation. A sign of the presence 
of the Spirit was given to the people of the country, who 
saw Sta. Maria degli Angeli, and the dwelling-place of the 
brethren and the wood about it, all in flames. The spot is 
marked by a pillar near the cell where S. Francis died. 

Once again the story of Sta. Chiara is concerned with the 
Porziuncola. At the season of Christmas she was sick 
and not able to go to office in the church at S. Damiano, 
and by the will of Christ she was miraculously carried to 
the chapel of the brethren, where she was present at Matins 
and received Communion, and was borne back to her bed. 

When the Abbot of Monte Subasio granted the chapel 
to Francis, he made it a condition that it should be the 
head place of the order, and it was here that the General 
Chapters were held. 

On one famous occasion five thousand brethren were 
gathered, those of the different provinces each having 
their places. The writer of the Fioretti describes them 
as spending their time in reasoning of God, in prayer, 



242 ASSIS1 

and in works of charity. They said the office, they 
lamented their sins, they discoursed of the salvation of 
the soul. And all was done in such silence and with so 
much discretion that there was no noise. When the Car- 
dinal Ugolino saw the gathering, he said, " Truly this is 
the camp and the army of the Cavaliers of God." S. 
Francis bade that none should take heed for food, and the 
people of the country brought all that they had need of. 
S. Dominic, who was there, knelt before Francis and con- 
fessed andfrepented, inasmuch as he had judged hardly 
concerningjthe carelessness for the food of so many people, 
and he took for himself and his brethren the rule of Holy 
Poverty. 

There was, however, another side to the picture, which we 
find in the " Mirror of Perfection." Speaking of what was 
probably the same Chapter, the writer says that some of 
the brethren urged the Cardinal to the end that Francis 
should follow the counsel of the wiser brethren, and that 
they should live according to the rule of S. Benedict or S. 
Augustine. When the Cardinal admonished Francis, he 
answered, " The Lord hath called me by the way of sim- 
plicity and humility, and this way hath He pointed out 
to me in truth for myself, and for them that are willing to 
believe me and to imitate me ..." (See " Mirror of Per- 
fection," 68). 

Some years after this Francis with his brethren came back 
from Monte della Vernia, where he had seen the vision of 
the Crucified One. As they came near to the place Brother 
Leo saw a cross going before S. Francis. When he rested 
it rested, and when he went on it went with him, and from 
it there shone on the face of Francis a bright light, and the 
vision was with him till they entered the place of the 
brethren at Sta. Maria degli Angeli. 

The present Church of Sta. Maria degli Angeli was built 
from designs by Vignola, and the first stone was laid in 
1569. It covers two buildings, the Porziuncola and the 
cell in which S. Francis died. 

The visitor is generally taken in the first place to the 



MONUMENTS OF LIFE OF S. FRANCIS 243 

Sacristy. The walls of this room are panelled with carved 
woodwork of the sixteenth century, and in one corner 
there is a design intended to represent the Sepulchre at 
Jerusalem. There is a small half-length figure of Christ 
by Perugino, and there are two small paintings by Guido 
Rem. From the sacristy a short passage leads to the 
Chapel of S. Carlo Borromeo. Here there is a rude picture 
of S. Francis, attributed to Giunta Pisano ; it is painted on 
a piece of wood which is said to have formed part of the 
bed of S. Francis. 

From the Chapel of S. Carlo Borromeo we pass along an 
arcade to a space of open garden ground ; on the l. grow 
the roses of S. Francis. 

The miracle of the roses happened in January. S. 
Francis had suffered much from temptation, and so that 
the flesh might be subdued, he went out and rolled among 
thorns and briars. Suddenly they burst out into flower, 
and ever since they have grown without thorns. Two 
angels led him back to the altar, where he had a vision of 
Christ and Madonna seated on their throne in heaven 
among many angels. His prayer was heard, and indul- 
gence is granted to those who are truly penitent and who 
visit the church. 

From this garden the visitor enters the Chapel of the 
Roses. The inner part, which covers the grotto where 
Francis lived, was built by S. Bonaventura ; the outer 
part was built by S. Bernardino. The whole contains 
frescoes painted by Tiberio d'Assisi, and though the 
pictures are not remarkable works of art, they harmonise 
with their surroundings. 

The frescoes on the R. in the Chapel of S. Bernardino 
are : 

1. S. Francis rolls in the thorns ; two angels appear to 
him. 

2. S. Francis is led by two angels back to the 
church. 

The pictures on the l. are : 

3. S. Francis prays to Christ for an indulgence. 



244 ASSISI 

4. S. Francis presents roses at the altar, and sees a vision 
of Christ and Madonna. 

5. The indulgence is confirmed by Honorius III. 

6. S. Francis, accompanied by seven bishops, preaches 
the indulgence. 

In the Chapel of S. Bonaventura, which is built over the 
grotto, Tiber to has painted S. Francis with twelve dis- 
ciples. The altar is dedicated in the names of five Fran- 
ciscans who suffered in Morocco. While the martyrdom 
was taking place it was miraculously revealed to S. Francis 
as he knelt in prayer. 

In the grotto below the altar, where S Francis prayed, 
there are preserved two logs, part of the pulpit from which 
S. Francis preached the indulgence. 

The visitor now re-enters the church. In the choir, to 
the l., is a door leading to a small choir, where a pulpit of 
S. Bernardino is preserved. Near this entrance, in the 
choir itself, is an elaborate sixteenth-century pulpit, with 
confessionals for various languages below. 

Round the pulpit the following subjects are carved :— 

1. S. Francis rolls in the thorns. 

2. S. Francis and seven bishops preach the indulgence. 

3. S. Francis, when he presents the roses, sees the vision 
of Christ. 

4. Honorius III. confirms the indulgence. 

5. S. Francis descends into Purgatory to release the 
souls of brethren who are suffering. 

6. Death of S. Francis. 

To the R. of the choir, opposite to this pulpit, is the 
room in which S. Francis died. On the outside is a panel 
painted by Gtunta Pisano ; it is said to have been part of 
the wooden cover which was over the body when it was 
carried up to Assisi. On the altar is a figure of the saint, 
worked by Luca delta Robbia from a mask taken from the 
face of S. Francis. 

On the walls are frescoes by Lo Spagna representing the 
twelve first disciples and six other famous Franciscans. 
In a tabernacle to the r. of the entrance is preserved the 




Ph oto graft h : B rogi 



MADONNA AND CHILD 

(By Luca della Robbia. In the Bargello at Florence) 

Compare with the della Robbia relief at S. Maria degli Angeli, Assisi 



MONUMENTS OF LIFE OF S. FRANCIS 245 

cord of S. Francis marked with blood when he received the 
Stigmata, and also a piece of the habit of S. Bonaventura. 

In the chapel of the relics, to the R. of the entrance 
into the sacristy, is a crucifix by Giunta Pisano. 

In a chapel to the l. of the nave is a fine piece of Delia 
Robbia ware. The centre of the composition is a Corona- 
tion of the Virgin. To the l. S. Francis receives the 
Stigmata, and to the R. S. Jerome has a vision of Christ 
on the cross. In the predella there is (1) an Annunciation, 
(2) the Nativity, (3) the Adoration of the Magi. 

The Chapel of the Porziuncola itself stands under the 
great dome of the church. The fresco over the entrance 
door is a mannered picture by Overbeck, representing 
Christ and Madonna in heaven surrounded by angels. In 
a corresponding position on the east end of the chapel is a 
fresco by Perugino, restored in modern times. We see 
the uprights of two crosses, but no actual crucifixion. 
Madonna is supported by attendants, S. Mary Magdalene 
looks upwards, and S. Francis kneels and clings to the 
foot of the cross. 

On the R. wall of the chapel, on the outside, there are 
remains of a fresco and an inscription to the memory of 
Pietro di Catani, who died in 122 1. So many miracles 
were worked by its virtues that Francis ordered that no 
more should be done, and after that its power ceased. 

The altar front is part of a ninth-century screen with 
crosses and foliage on which birds feed, all set in arcading 
carved with running scrolls. 



IV 
SMALLER UMBRIAN TOWNS 

MONTEFALCO 

THE small town of Montefalco may be reached by 
driving from Foligno, from Spoleto, or from Assisi. 
It is on the top of a hill,, and in all directions there are 
lovely views of the Umbrian valleys , which make it well 
worth a visit, apart from its artistic interest. 

The origin of Montefalco is uncertain, no definite history 
exists before the thirteenth century. The town was then 
under the domination of the Church, and ruled itself by 
twelve magistrates. During the period of the supremacy 
of the Trinci family at Foligno, Montefalco fell into their 
hands and was ruled by them as vicars-general of the 
Church. With the fall of the Trinci in 1435, the Rocca 
was destroyed by Pope Eugenius IV. , and the lordship 
given to Count Stacciola. The commune continued to 
rule itself by its own magistrates or by a Podesta chosen 
by the people under the protection of the Holy See, until 
i860, when Umbria was annexed to the kingdom of 
Victor Emanuele II. 

The town is surrounded with walls, has a Palazzo del 
Comune with important archives and several churches. 

The principal pictures are now gathered together in the 
Church of S. Francesco, which is virtually the town museum. 
In the choir Benozzo Gozzoli painted a series of pictures 
of the life of S. Francis about the year 1452. Benozzo is 
interesting as having been the pupil or assistant of Fra 
Angelico, and also as having influenced several Umbrian 
247 



24S SMALLER UMBRIAN TOWNS 

painters, such as Bonfigli, Fiorenzo di Lorenzo, and Niccolo 
da Foligno. The colour of these frescoes is bright and 
cheerful, and there is a simple, almost childlike, realism 
throughout. The necessary figures are set down plainly, 
the supposed action is described simply, and a suitable 
background is provided. There is no exaggeration in the 
expression of feeling, nor is there any imagination. The 
whole is a moderately competent piece of craftsmanship. 
The story of the life of S. Francis begins at the lower left- 
hand corner. 

(Plan XVI., p. 250) No. 1. Francis is born in a stable ; 
the ox and the ass are in the background. 

No. 2. A pilgrim prophesies concerning Francis. A 
poor man spreads his cloak for Francis to walk upon. 

No. 3. Francis meets a poor nobleman and gives him his 
cloak. 

No. 4. Francis dreams and sees the vision of a palace 
decked with flags and coats-of-arms. Christ appears to 
him and tells him that the palace is for him and his 
warriors. 

No. 5. Francis renounces his family and the world ; the 
Bishop covers him with his robe. 

No. 6. Pope Innocent III. dreams that he sees the 
Church of S. John Lateran supported by a poor man. 

No. 7. Innocent III. approves the rule. Benozzo has 
succeeded here in drawing a distinction between the worldly 
shrewdness of the Cardinals and the rapt devotion of 
Francis. 

No. 8. The devils are exorcised from the town of Arezzo. 
The figures of the two brethren, Francis in prayer and Sil- 
vestro commanding the devils, are good. 

No. 9. Francis preaches to the birds near Bevagna. He 
speaks with conviction and fervour ; the brother who ac- 
companies him is lost in amazement. In the background 
is Monte Subasio, with Assisi in the distance. 

No. 10. Francis blesses the people of Montefalco. 

No. 11. Death of the Lord of Celano. 

No. 12. Meeting of Francis and Dominic. To the L. 




Photograph: Alinari 



(From the fresco by Benozzo Gozzoli in the Chapel of the 
Riccardi Palace, Florence) 

Compare with the frescoes by Benozzo Gozzoli in S. Francesco at Montefalco 



MONTEFALCO 249 

the Virgin kneels before Christ. She shows the deeds of 
Francis to Christ, and He bears the lance with which the 
wounds of the Stigmata are to be given. 

No. 13. Francis before the Soldan. Francis stands in 
the fire with the Cross in one hand and the other raised. 
Two wise men look on in fear, and with an air of indignant 
protest. Benozzo has painted aloes in the background as 
being suitable to an Eastern land, but he does not forget his 
own Florentine cypresses. 

No. 14. The Presepio. Francis folds the Child tenderly 
in his arms and presses his lips to the Child's face. The ox 
and the ass lie under a low shed in the church. The archi- 
tectural background shows the application of Renaissance 
detail to a Gothic interior. 

No. 15. Francis receives the Stigmata. 

No. 16. The dead body is examined, and the facts of the 
Stigmata are verified. 

No. 17. S. Francis in Glory. 

No. 18. S. Anthony of Padua. 

No. 19. S. Louis the Archbishop. The crown he has 
refused lies at his feet. 

No. 20. S. Catherine (probably of Siena). She wears a 
grey robe and black hood, and bears a lily. 

No. 21. Sta. Rosa of Viterbo. She is crowned, and has 
a lap full of roses. 

No. 22. S. Bernardino. 

No. 23. Round the arch of the choir are painted Francis 
and his twelve disciples. There is no doubt an intention 
to honour the first disciples, and also a desire to remind 
worshippers of the conformity of the life of Francis with 
that of Christ. The author of the Fioretti says : " For 
since S. Francis, the true servant of Christ, was in certain 
things given to the world for the salvation of men, therefore 
God the Father made him conformed to, and like His Son 
in many acts." 

On the walls of the choir, below the story of S. Francis, 
there is a series of pictures representing men held in honour 
by the brethren. 



250 SMALLER UMBRIAN TOWNS 

No. 24. The central figure is Dante ; to his R. is Giotto, 
and to his l. Petrarch. 




Nos. 25 and 26. Figures of Popes, of the Emperor Con- 
stantine, King Robert of Naples, Cardinals and Doctors. 



MONTEFALCO 251 

Nos. 27 and 28. Figures of brethren and others, includ- 
ing John of Parma and Nicholas of Lira. 

In the chapel to the left of the choir there are frescoes in 
the style of the Giotteschi. 

On the l. is a Crucifixion ; on the R., Descent into 
Hades and " Noli me tangere." 

In the chapel to the right of the choir there is, to the l., 
a Crucifixion and S. Catherine of Alexandria, and on the 
r., Madonna and Child and an Entombment. 

In the nave begin with the R. aisle at the west end next 
the entrance. 

First bay. Madonna and Child with SS. Jerome, 
Anthony of Padua, John the Baptist, and Louis, painted 
in fresco by Benozzo Gozzoli and dated 1452. Above are 
medallions with the four Evangelists, also the Cruci- 
fixion and the four Doctors, and on the underside 
of the arch opening into the nave angels by Benozzo 
Gozzoli. 

Second bay. On the wall, Miracles of S. Bernardino, 
school of Niccolo Alunno. On the soffit of the arch, 
Madonna and Child and saints (fifteenth century). 

Third bay. The soul of a dead person, pictured as a 
child in white clothes, is attacked by the devil, who is 
driven off by Madonna, dated 1510. 

Fourth bay. Crucifix ascribed to Margaritone, in which 
the physical suffering is accentuated. On the roof are the 
four Evangelists, the four Doctors, and busts of the Pro- 
phets, ascribed to the school of Nelli. 

Fifth bay. Fresco by Tiberio d'Assisi. On the roof 
-and on the soffit of the entrance arch, Acts of S. Antonio 
Abbate, fourteenth century. 

Sixth bay. On the roof, Christ and the four Evangelists, 
locally ascribed to Giotto. 

At the end of the R. aisle there is a small vaulted room 
with a collection of architectural fragments, coats-of- 
-arms, etc. 

On the piers facing into the nave on the R. side of the 
church : 



252 SMALLER UMBRIAN TOWNS 

First pier. Coronation of the Virgin, of the fifteenth 
eentury. 

Second pier. Scenes from the life of Christ, ascribed to 
the school of Niccolo Alunno. 

Third pier. SS. Vincentius, Illuminata, and Niccolo, 
ascribed to Lo Spagna. 

Fourth pier. Madonna and Child. 

Fifth pier. Crucifixion carving in wood with painted 
background, Madonna, SS. John Baptist, Magdalene, and 
Francis, ascribed to Niccolo Alunno. 

On a screen a Gonfalone, Madonna and Child with saints, 
by Melanzio. 

On the left side of the church, beginning at the west end 
next the extrance : 

In the chapel close to the entrance, large fresco by 
Perugino. In the lower part of the picture there is a 
Nativity, in which the Child resting on the ground is 
adored by Madonna, Joseph, and the Shepherds. The 
pillars supporting the roof of the stable are of elaborate 
Renaissance design. There is a lovely landscape in the 
background. In the lunette above is the Father Eternal 
in a heavy almond-shaped glory with angels adoring. 

Madonna and Child with S. Andrew and a Bishop, by 
Tiberio d'Assisi. 

S. Anthony of Padua drives out the devil from a man 
and joins the leg of a man to the stump, ascribed to 
Lorenzo di Viterbo. 

Pass out of the chapel and along the l. wall of the church. 

Two fragments by Melanzio. Panel of 1488, SS. Sebas- 
tian, Fortunato, Severo and Chiara, of Montefalco. Panel, 
Madonna and Child with SS. Peter, Paul, Sebastian, 
and a mendicant, by Melanzio. Gonfalone, Madonna 
drives off the devil. On a stand, close to the l. of the choir, 
Madonna and Child. 

In the piazza, a few minutes walk from S. Francesco, 
there is a chapel, S. Maria della Piazza; it contains a large 
picture by the local painter Melanzio. Madonna and 



MONTEFALCO 253 

Child with SS. Gregory, Jerome, Fortunato, and Severo. 
Madonna is said to be a portrait of Melanzio's wife, and 
S. Severo is said to be a portrait of himself. 

Close to the Porta di S. Bartolommeo, in the apse of 
the church of that name, there is a window with some 
interesting remains of Romanesque carving. 

S. Chiara. In a chapel to the l. of the choir there are 
frescoes dated in 1333. Over the altar is a Crucifixion, 
there is a characteristic group of Jews to the R. On the 
side wall Christ appears in a mandorla, SS. Augustine and 
Catherine of Alexandria present followers. Beneath, 
an angel announces her martyrdom to S. Catherine, 
Death of S. Chiara of Montefalco. On the wall to the R., 
Madonna and Child with angels ; beneath, the Bearing of 
the Cross. On the roof of the chapel, the four Evangelists. 

S. Illuminata. This church contains a number of 
frescoes in poor condition, ascribed to Melanzio. 

To the l. 

First bay, next the altar, Madonna and Child. 

Second bay. Nativity, Adoration of the Magi, Flight 
into Egypt ; in the semi-dome, Angels sing the Gloria 
in excelsis. 

Third bay. Madonna and Child ; to the l., SS. Anthony 
of Padua, Sebastian, Rocco, and a bishop ; to the r., S. 
Catherine of Alexandria and three other saintly women ; 
in the semi-dome, putti showering down flowers from 
meadows full of blossom. 

To the R. 

First bay, nearest to the altar, Madonna and Child 
with SS. Lorenzo and Sebastian ; to the l., SS. Jerome 
and Anthony the Abbot ; to the R., in the semi-dome, the 
Resurrection of Christ. 

Second bay. Assumption of the Virgin; to the R., a 
Bishop and perhaps S. Ansano ; to the l., S. Agatha and 
a Bishop. In the semi-dome, Coronation of the Virgin. 

Third bay. Martyrdom, probably of S. Catherine ; 
to the l., S. Jerome ; to the R., SS. John Baptist and 



254 SMALLER UMBRIAN TOWNS 

Niccolo of Tolentino. In the semi-dome, the Father 
Eternal. 

A short distance from the gate and near to the road 
leading to Spoleto is the Monastery and Church of S. 
Fortunate 

In the church there are some remains of pictures by 
Benozzo Gozzoli. 

In the cloister there is the Chapel of the Rosary, painted 
by Tiberio d' Assist. 

i. S. Francis rolls among the thorns; an angel turns 
them into roses. 

2. S. Francis, attended by angels, carries the roses, and 

3. Lays them on the altar. 

4. S. Francis gives the roses to the Pope. 

5. Publication of the Canonisation of S. Francis (?). 
Behind the monastery, in the garden which gradually 

passes into a wild shrubbery of ilex, there is the grotto 
where S. Fortunato lived. 



Bevagna 

The excursion from Assisi to Montefalco may be planned 
so as to include, either in going or returning, the Roman 
site of Mevagna now occupied by the small town of 
Bevagna. 

Mevagna, situated on the bank of the River Timia and 
on the Via Flaminia, appears to have been an important 
centre in Roman times. Twice during the mediaeval 
period the town was almost entirely destroyed. After 
the sack carried out by the Conte d 'Aquino (the grand- 
father of S. Thomas Aquinas and Captain of Frederick II.), 
the scattered inhabitants were gathered together by the 
Blessed Giacomo, their fellow-citizen. The second destruc- 
tion was the work of Corrado Trinci in the fifteenth 
century. Bevagna throughout her history was always 
more or less under the control of the Holy See, but the 



SPELLO 255 

citizens had the right of ruling themselves by their own 
magistrates. 

The piazza is a striking example of the dignified tradi- 
tion which endows even the simplest Italian population 
with the apparatus of a stately and ordered life. The 
picturesque mediaeval pile of communal buildings, with 
two-light pointed windows and slender columns, is now 
used partly as a theatre. In the hall is a collection of 
Roman inscriptions and fragments of sculpture. At one side 
is the unused Church of S. Sylvestro, with good Roman- 
esque detail ; a stone on the west front records the 
architect Binellus, and the date 1195. Opposite is the 
Church of S. Michele, with a charming string course and a 
noteworthy doorway, both of characteristic Romanesque 
design. At the side of the door are the names of the 
architects Rodulfus and Binellus. 

In the Church of the Beato Giacomo, a building of the 
fourteenth century with a fresco of the Sienese school 
on the facade, there is the tomb of the Beato Giacomo 
who died in 1301. 

SPELLO 

Spello stands on the site of a Roman colony of which 
many traces remain. During the early Middle Ages the 
town passed into the dominion of the Church, and the 
citizens early in the thirteenth century sought the alliance 
and protection of Perugia. In 1449 Pope Nicholas V. 
gave the town in feud to Nello Baglioni of Perugia, and 
the walls and towers were dismantled during the contest 
between the Perugians and Pope Paul III. On the 
extinction of the Baglioni family Spello returned to her 
former dependence upon the Church. 

The main entrance is through a Roman gateway. The 
mediaeval walls contain many fragments of ancient build- 
ing, and considerable remains of an amphitheatre are seen 
not far from the gate on the road to Assisi. 

The principal monument is the Duomo, standing in a 



256 SMALLER VMBR1AN TOWNS 

small piazza to the r. of the main street a few minutes' 
walk from the gate. 

The western facade has a single doorway, with sculptured 
reliefs upon the jambs and lintels. On the jambs there is 
the familiar Romanesque design of a vine with animals, 
etc., among the branches. The lintel is composed of a 
number of fragments, including sculptures of a dog chasing 
a stag, an eagle devouring a hare, and two lions fighting* 

Passing to the interior there is, on the left side of the nave, 
the Baglioni chapel, in which Pinturicchio painted three 
large frescoes. On the l. wall is the Annunciation, on the 
wall facing the visitor is the Nativity, and on the r. wall 
Christ among the Doctors. The general design is striking 
and highly decorative, i. The Annunciation. The angel 
is a remarkable presentment, the painter has had a genuine 
inspiration, and this work would warrant us in placing 
Pinturicchio in a high position among contemporary 
Umbrian artists. Madonna is a simple figure disturbed 
in her reading by the appearance of the angel. 2. The 
Nativity includes an Adoration of the shepherds ; one 
brings an offering of eggs, and another a sheep. In the 
background the three kings arrive. The landscape is not 
designed with the fine insight of Perugino. Two angels 
kneel beside the infant, one of them bearing the figure of 
the cross. 3. Christ among the Doctors forms a striking 
picture. In the background is a temple, and from it there 
is a broad walk in the centre of which stands the Child. 
On each side are groups of Jews ; some of them have 
thrown down their books in despair. On the roof of the 
chapel are painted four sibyls, those of Erythraea and 
Europa, and of Tivoli and Samos. These prophetesses 
each have their traditional mission, but the inscriptions 
are too much damaged to enable us to say what significance 
may have been attached to them here. 

Two inferior pictures of the Umbrian school, a Pieta on 
the l. and Madonna and Child to the R., are on the piers 
at the entrance of the choir. In the sacristy there is a 
small Madonna and Child attributed to Pinturicchio. 




Photograph : Anderson 

"GEOMETRY" 
(From the Hall of the Liberal Arts, Vatican. Rome) 
Compare with the frescoes by Pinturicchio in the Duomo, Spello 



FOLIGNO 257 

Over the altar is a spacious Ciborium of Renaissance 
design. 

S. Andrea. A little higher than the Duomo, in the main 
street of the town, is the Church of S. Andrea. In the 
southern transept there is a large altar-piece attributed to 
Pinturicchio. 

A chapel near the western entrance is covered with 
frescoes in a poor state of preservation. 

S. Girolamo is an interesting church outside the walls. 
The main street should be followed up to the gate at the 
high part of the town ; from this point a pleasant walk 
among olive-trees leads to the church. The view looking 
down over the Vale of Spoleto is particularly fine. The 
loggia in front of the church contains some frescoes showing 
incidents in the history of S. Francis. 

1. The Bishop covers Francis when he renounces his 
father. 

2. Francis receives the Stigmata. 

3. The preaching of the Indulgence. 

Within the church, at the back of the high altar, there 
is an unpretending Umbrian picture representing the 
Sposalizio. 

The pictures at S. Girolamo are of no great moment, but 
a couple of hours is well spent in a visit to this beautiful 
spot. A return path leads under the shade of the olives to 
the entrance gate of the town. 

Recent discoveries in Spello have been made by Dr 
Gnoli. The frescoes represent half-length figures of 
the Apostles, two are attributed to Niccolo Alunno. 
Travellers should make inquiry locally. 

FOLIGNO 

Foligno was a city (Fulginium) in the times of the 
Roman Republic, situated on the Via Flaminia. It 
stands on the l. bank of the River Topino and is sur- 
rounded by walls. 

During the early Middle Ages the town suffered from 



258 SMALLER UMBRIAN TOWNS 

destructive attacks by the Visigoths 412, the Vandals 
452, the Huns 453. In the sixth century it became part 
of the Duchy of Spoleto and was ruled by a lieutenant. 

Under Innocent III. (1198 to 12 16) the town passed 
directly under the influence of the Church. 

The citizens were not always consistently loyal to the 
Guelph side. In the thirteenth century the town more than 
once fell into the hands of the Imperialists. In 1227 
Frederick II. appointed Tommaso d 'Aquino, the grand- 
father of S. Thomas, to be his captain-general in Foligno. 
The two ruling families in the town were the Trinci, the 
chiefs of the Guelph party, and the Anastasi, who were in 
power as Gonfalonieri of Justice from about 1264 to 1305. 
The Trinci who succeeded, ruled always by and with the 
goodwill of the Popes, and when Conrad, about the year 
1435, quarrelled with Eugenius IV., he was expelled. 
After this Foligno was ruled by rectors nominated by the 
Pope. In 1490 Innocent VIII. appointed his own brother, 
Maurizio Cibo, as Governor of Spoleto, Assisi, and Foligno. 
' The Palazzo del Governo, formerly the Trinci Palace, is 
a building of the fourteenth century. It passed into the 
hands of the commune in 1439. In 1424 Corrado Trinci 
commissioned Ottaviano Nelli to paint the frescoes of the 
chapel. The walls and roof are covered with pictures. 
(See Plan XVII., p. 259.) 

(1.) Joachim and Anna make their offerings in the 
Temple. (2.) An angel appears to Joachim in the desert 
and to Anna in the house, bidding them to meet each other 
at the Golden Gate in Jerusalem. (3.) The meeting of 
Joachim and Anna. (4.) The Nativity of the Virgin. 
(5.) The Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple. 
(6.) The Sposalizio. (7.) The Annunciation. (8.) The 
Nativity of Christ. (9.) The Adoration of the Magi. 
(10.) The Apostles visit Madonna before they set out to 
preach. (11.) The Apostles are recalled miraculously to 
witness the death of the Virgin. (12.) Death of Madonna. 
Her soul is carried to heaven in the arms of Christ. 

Frescoes not shown in the plan include the Presentation 



FOLIGNO 



z$9 



of the Child in the Temple and the Annunciation to Ma- 
donna of her approaching death by an angel. Apart from 
this series there is — (13.) The Crucifixion. (14.) SS. John 




the Baptist, Anthony, and Dominic. (15.) Francis 
receives the Stigmata. These frescoes have little except 
a certain effect of colour to recommend them. They show 



260 SMALLER TIMER] AN TOWNS 

how entirely the painter remained outside the powerful 
influences that were moving contemporary artists in other 
parts of Italy. 

In an antechamber are a number of frescoes by some 
artist of the school of Gentile da Fabriano. They repre- 
sent scenes of the mythological origin of Rome connected 
with the Vestal Virgin Rea Silvia, and the birth of the 
twins Romulus and Remus. In the Great Salone above, 
reached by a staircase, are a number of Roman heroes 
painted in niches and surrounded with decorative arms and 
emblems. 

On the south side of the piazza is the Palazzo Com- 
unale, containing a small museum. In the room to the 
l. are choral books, codexes, coins, and embroideries. In 
the corridor are a number of fragments of Roman in- 
scriptions and mosaics, also urns. There are also a few 
Umbrian pictures. A large fresco of Christ crucified, 
Madonna and Child, dated 1449, school of Foligno. 
Madonna with angels, work of Mezzastris of Foligno. 
S. Augustine preaching. Madonna and Child with a nun, 
by an imitator of Alunno, 149 1. Large fresco by Bono 
Doni. Madonna and saints, by Mezzastris, and Madonna 
between S. Francis and S. John, by Mezzastris. 

In the desecrated Church of the Annunziata there is a 
Baptism by Perugino. It can only be seen under un- 
favourable conditions, and has been a good deal damaged. 
It is not a good example of the painter : the vapid senti- 
ment which seems to have been his constant temptation 
has here completely mastered him. In the semi-dome the 
Father Eternal sits holding a globe. Below is the scene of 
the Baptism. Besides the usual attendant angels there 
are a number of cherub heads and two angels in adoration 
in the air. 

In the Church of S. Niccolo there are two paintings by 
Niccolo di Liberatore, known also as Niccolo da Foligno or 
Niccolo Alunno. This painter lived from 1430 to 1502. 
He was a pupil of Benozzo Gozzoli and a fellow-student 
with Bonfigli (1425-1496). Niccolo paints as a man of 



FOLIGNO 261 

eager temperament and strong emotion. He does not 
reach any elevated range of thought or feeling, but his 
appeal is of a more fundamental kind than is usual among 
Umbrian masters of the fifteenth century. The altar- 
piece in the second chapel to the R. is an immense picture 
built up of many pieces, set in a gorgeous framing. The 
central scene is the Adoration of the Infant. The figure 
of the Virgin is natural and pleasing. In the middle dis- 
tance the shepherds hurry along to join the group, and in 
the background are the three kings, riding through a 
formal landscape. Above this part of the picture Christ 
rises from the tomb. The witnesses of these mysteries are, 
to the lefty SS. Sebastian and Nicholas, Sta. Chiara and S. 
John the Baptist, a Pope, and another saint. To the right, 
SS. Michael and John the Evangelist, S. Jerome, and per- 
haps S. Nicholas of Tolentino, and two others, probably 
bishops. 

In the same church is another picture by Niccolo. In 
the upper part Christ crowns Madonna. They are sur- 
rounded by a formal and ungraceful glory of cherubs and 
child -angels. S. Anthony and S. Bernardino of Siena look 
up in adoring wonder. In the background is an Umbrian 
landscape, more formal and less beautiful than those of 
Perugino. 

In the Church of Sta. Maria Infra Portas there are 
remains of a number of frescoes, many of them attributed 
to Mezzastris. The general aspect of the church is pleasant 
and the porch is picturesque. 

The building is said to date from the seventh century, 
and has been many times restored. In a chapel near to 
the entrance are remains of frescoes, probably of the twelfth 
century, in the Italo-Byzantine style. They represent S. 
Michael, the Good Thief, and Christ between Peter and 
Paul. 

The Duomo is an ancient building whose primitive 
Romanesque character has suffered much alteration. The 
principal facade is towards the smaller piazza. It was 
rebuilt in 1113. The entrance on the large piazza has 



262 SMALLER UMBRIAN TOWNS 

three doorways. The central one is of red marble, with 
lions at the foot of the jambs. Round the arch are sculp- 
tured the signs of the Zodiac (not in their right order), and 
the four symbols of the Evangelists. 

In the canonica there are a few pictures and statuettes. 
Under the nave there is an unusually large crypt. 

The Benedictine Abbey of Sasso Vivo lies among the 
hills about one and a half hours from Foligno (five kilo- 
metres). The excursion is well worth the time involved. 
Inquiry should be made in Foligno about the key of the 
church. For about three-quarters of an hour it is possible 
to follow a rough road in a carriage. After that there is a 
good hill path, and in about forty minutes the monastery 
is reached. The lower slopes are covered with olives, and 
as the path winds up the mountain-side it is shaded in 
many places by fine oak-trees. From the projecting spur 
upon which the Abbey stands there is a magnificent view. 
The building is impressive. At one end rises the church 
with a low campanile, and from it stretches a long and 
almost unbroken curtain of masonry, behind which lie the 
conventual buildings. The ground on three sides falls 
steeply to the torrent far below. The buildings are now 
used by a farmer, and within the gates there is a scene of 
miserable squalor. The church and cloister, however, 
remain unharmed, and it is the latter which forms the 
interest of the place. 

The monastery was founded by Benedictine monks in 
1066, and in the fourteenth century it was at the height of 
its power, importance, and wealth. It was suppressed by 
Innocent VIII. It causes a shock of surprise, after climb- 
ing about the neglected and ruinous building used for the 
farm stock, to enter suddenly into a small cloister perfect in 
every particular. 

The refined beauty of the colonnade and the grace of the 
whole design at once remind the traveller of the cloister of 
S. John Lateran at Rome, upon which it is modelled. The 
arches rest on pairs of small columns. The capitals are 
bell-shaped, and the lines of the cornice are relieved by 




Photograph: Brogi 

CLOISTER OF S. PAUL'S WITHOUT THE WALLS. ROME 
Compare with the cloister at Sasso Vivo near Foligno 



GUBBIO 263 

mosaics worked in the style of the Cosmati. The cornice, 
indeed, is a marvel of beauty. It is a series of simple 
mouldings and arcadings, executed in yellow sandstone, 
terra-cotta, and delicately tinted marble. The simplicity 
of design, the air of refinement and proportion, the beauty 
of colour, and the subtle sense of harmony, which is classi- 
cal in the best sense of the word, make of this quiet cloister 
a most perfect and lovely picture. The cloister was con- 
structed in the early part of the thirteenth century. 

Another interesting excursion may be made from 
Foligno to S. Giovanni Profiamma, where there is a fine 
Romanesque church dating from 1239, with symbolical 
sculptures on the facade. In the immediate neighbour- 
hood of Foligno, leaving by the Porta Romana, there is 
the little town of Sant' Eraclio, with a picturesque castle 
built by the Trinci at the beginning of the fifteenth century. 

GUBBIO 

Gubbio is on a line of railway which connects Arezzo 
with Fossato, a station on the Foligno-Ancona line. The 
journey from Arezzo to Gubbio occupies from four and a 
half to five hours, and from Gubbio to Fossato there is 
about an hour's journey. This railway also serves Citta 
di Castello and Borgo San Sepolcro ; it passes through a 
beautiful country. Another way of reaching Gubbio, and 
one that is still more pleasant, is to drive from Perugia ; 
this takes about four hours. Passing out of Perugia by the 
Porta Augusta the road descends rapidly to the valley of 
the Tiber. The stream here is often a succession of shal- 
lows reflecting the willows on its banks, rather than the 
river that is familiar to us in Rome. It is crossed by a 
high bridge, and soon afterwards the road to Umbertide 
goes off to the l. The road to Gubbio lies over a range of 
hills bare of vegetation, and with but few inhabitants. 
Some sheep, tended by wild-looking men clothed in goat- 
skins, find a little grazing during parts of the year, and 
here and there a bit of open woodland reminds the traveller 



264 SMALLER UM BRIAN TOWNS 

of a Surrey common. The charm of the drive is in the 
distant views over the Umbrian valleys, with the chain of 
the Apennines forming a magnificent background. For 
the last mile or two the road crosses a broad valley leading 
to the foot of Monte Calvo. 

[Gubbio is built on the lower slopes of the hill. The 
circuit of the ancient walls is too large for the modern town, 
which clusters round two immense mediaeval buildings, 
the Palazzo dei Consoli and the Palazzo del Municipio. 
Above these stand the ducal palace and the Duomo, and 
for a background there is the grey side of Monte Calvo. 

Gubbio was famous for its school of pottery, particularly 
in the early part of the sixteenth century, when Maestro 
Giorgio produced the ruby lustre which has made him 
famous. Hardly any of this ware is to be seen in the 
public collections of the town, but those who are interested 
in it will find many examples in the South Kensington 
Museum.] 

The two municipal buildings are raised on huge but- 
tresses of masonry. They form striking examples of the 
style of architecture usually found in fourteenth-century 
buildings of this kind. They suggest the spacious and 
magnificent life of the Italian city republics. 

Palazzo dei Oonsoli has an immense hall on the ground 
floor roofed with a round waggon vault. Fortunately 
nothing has been done to destroy the effect of its fine con- 
struction. In it are collected a few inscriptions from the 
Roman theatre. On the side of the staircase there is a 
fresco with Madonna and Child, S. Ubaldo, and John the 
Evangelist. 

Room opening from the hall. Carved doors from the 
ducal palace. The ark-shaped casket which contained 
originally the relics of S. Ubaldo. A fresco of Madonna 
and Child by Palmerucci. 

A similar room opens from the staircase before we reach 
the higher level. 

A processional cross with the four Evangelists. Brass 
plates for receiving offerings. In a cabinet is a specimen 



GUBBIO 265 

of the famous Gubbio ware, made by Maestro Giorgio, the 
subject is S. Francis kneeling before the Cross. A plate 
by the son of Maestro Giorgio. A number of diplomas 
granted by the Emperor Barbarossa (1163), Henry VI. 
(1191), Frederick II. (1211, -1241, 1244, 1248), Otto IV. 
(1211), and the Vicar of King Manfred (1259). A collec- 
tion of photographs of the lustre ware of Maestro Giorgio. 

The large hall on the second floor is another imposing 
apartment. It contains a collection of pictures. Turn 
to the l. The Elevation of the Cross, by Benedetto Nucci 
of Gubbio. The Assumption of the Virgin, by Signorelli. 
The Resurrection of Lazarus, by Virgilio, son of Benedetto 
Nucci. A Gonf alone, by Sinibaldo lbi ; on one side Mater 
Misericordia, on the other S. Ubaldo. The Annunciation, 
by Dannani of Gubbio. A fine stone fountain, with the 
arms of the Rovere family. 

Opening out of the large hall, there are several smaller 
rooms. Enter the central one. A detached fresco of 
Madonna and Child with saints, from the Church of S. 
Maria Nuova. 

Madonna with SS. Augustine and Monica, by a painter 
of the Umbrian school. 

Madonna and Child with John the Baptist, by Lippo 
Lippi. 

Madonna and Child with SS. Sebastian and Rocco, by 
Martino Mariotto. 

The Deposition, by a painter of Gubbio. 

In another small room, to the l., Madonna and Child, 
attributed to Palmerucci. 

Madonna and Child with SS. James, Ubaldo, John the 
Baptist, and Mariana, by Pielro Lorenzetti. 

S. Vincenzo, by Martino Nelli. 

Madonna and Child with saints, Umbrian school. A 
detached fresco, Madonna and Child on a large scale, attri- 
buted to the school of Nelli. 

A triptych in the rude native manner. 

Madonna, carved in wood and painted, of the thirteenth 
century. 



266 SMALLER UMBRIAN TOWNS 

Pass through the central small room, enter a room to the 
l. Head of a Roman statue found in the theatre. 

The most curious objects in the collection belonging to 
Gubbio are the Eugubine tables. Seven of them are pre- 
served here. They are of bronze., and the inscriptions upon 
them are still a subject of speculation for scholars. Five of 
the tables are written in Etruscan letters, and two in Latin. 
The language, however, is neither Etruscan nor Latin. It 
is supposed to be an Umbrian dialect closely allied to Oscan 
and Latin. The date assigned is about two centuries 
before Christ, when the Umbrians, as a people, had no 
power, and when their numbers are said to .have been 
greatly reduced. The writing is concerned with the ritual 
of a body of priests known as the Attidian Brethren. The 
tables were discovered in 1444. 

In a room opening from the large hall near the entrance, 
there is a collection of uninteresting pictures, and a few 
choral books. 

From an open loggia, there is a fine view over the town 
and the valley. 

S. Agostino 

Just outside the Porta Romana is the Church of S. Agos- 
tino. In the third chapel to the R. in the nave of the 
church is a picture of Madonna and Child. At either side 
angels present a group of souls, a dove descends on Christ, 
and angels make music. The most interesting feature of 
the church is, however, the choir, where the story of S. 
Augustine's life has been painted. The pictures are attri- 
buted to Ottaviano Nelli, who is known to have worked 
between the years 1403 and 1444. He was the son of Mar- 
tino Nelli, a pupil of Guido Palmerucci, a painter of Gubbio, 
supposed to have flourished between 1280 and 1345. Pal- 
merucci is said to have been the pupil of Oderigi, who died 
in 1299, and who has become famous from the mention of 
his name by Dante. Ottaviano Nelli worked under the 
patronage of the Counts of Montefeltro, but it is said that 



GUBBIO 267 

only a single figure of S. Sebastian remains of all that 




he painted during a ten years' residence in Urbino. 



268 SMALLER UMBRIAN TOWNS 

We turn now to consider the paintings in the choir. 

The frescoes on the roof (Plan XVIII., p. 267 ) ; Nos. i 9 2, 
3, and 4, describe the training of S. Augustine. He himself 
has told us how he disliked the routine of the schools, and 
how he enjoyed the tale of Troy as a " most pleasant 
spectacle of vanity." He also describes how he was 
roused to a desire for wisdom by the reading of Cicero's 
" Hortensius," and how by its influence his affections were 
changed and his mind turned towards God. In each of 
the frescoes in the vaults, besides the picture referring to 
some point in the youth of S. Augustine, there is a figure 
of an Evangelist. 

Leaving his native town of Tegaste, Augustine went 
to Carthage to continue his studies. He read the " Ten 
Predicaments " of Aristotle alone, and he studied all the 
books that he could get, bearing on the liberal arts, and 
thus he became fitted to teach. From Carthage he went 
to Rome, and from Rome he was sent by the prefect 
Symmachus as a teacher of rhetoric to Milan. These 
journeys are painted in the frescoes Nos. 5, 6, 7, and 8, 
and in the latter picture we see Augustine teaching. 

At Milan he came under the influence of S. Ambrose 
and Simplicianus ; the scene to the l. of No. 9 probably 
represents Augustine taking counsel with the latter. To 
the R. of the same picture the story is continued. While 
walking alone and being in much mental stress, he heard a 
voice saying, " Take up and read." Supposing it to be a 
voice from heaven he returned quickly to his friend 
Alypius, and seizing the book of the Apostles he opened it 
and read, " Not in rioting and drunkenness, not in strife 
and envying ; but put ye on the Lord Jesus Christ, and 
make not provision for the flesh to fulfil the lusts thereof." 

No. 10. The Baptism of S. Augustine. He and his son 
were baptised by S. Ambrose. It is said that during the 
ceremony each one in answering the other made the verses 
of the " Te Deum laudamus." 

No. 11. Perhaps represents the setting out to return to 
Africa. 



GUBBIO 269 

No. 12. Death of Sta. Monica, his mother, at Ostia while 
they were on the way. 

No. 13. Lands in Africa. No. 14. On his return to 
Africa he went to Hippo, and against his will he was 
ordained a priest by Valerian the Bishop. 

No. 15. Valerian having resigned the Bishopric, Augus- 
tine was constrained to take the office. This fresco repre- 
sents his Consecration. 

Nos. 16, 17, and 18. Probably represent some of the 
many controversies in which S. Augustine was engaged 
with Manicheans and others. 

No. 19. S. Augustine sees a vision of the Crucified Christ. 

No. 20. Death of S. Augustine. When the Vandals laid 
waste the country they besieged Hippo, and in the third 
month of the siege the Bishop fell ill and died. 

No. 21. Translation of the body to Pavia. 

No. 22. The miraculous deliverance of a prisoner. 

These frescoes were painted when Gentile da Fabriano 
was at work in various parts of Italy, and when Masolino 
and Masaccio were transforming Florentine art. But the 
painter at S. Agostino was no such craftsman as Gentile, 
and he had no comprehension of the subtle change which 
was being worked out by Masaccio. The paintings have 
been covered with plaster, and it would therefore be unfair 
to judge of the colour ; for the rest a certain love of realism 
only produces a rather childish art, wanting alike in force 
and dignity. 

On the wall, at the eastern end of the nave, is the Last 
Judgment, with Peter receiving the Elect at the gate, by 
Ottaviano Nelli. 

Sta. Maria Nuova (in the Via Savelli della Porta). The 
principal interest in the church is the charming fresco 
known as Madonna del Belvedere, by Ottaviano Nelli, 
painted in 1403 or 1404. In the centre sits Madonna with 
the Child on her knee ; to the R. is S. Anthony, to the l. 
S. Emiliano ; the donors (Pinoli) are presented, one by an 
angel, the other by S. Anthony. Around Madonna the 
heavenly choir make sweet music. Over her head, God 



270 SMALLER UMBR1AN TOWNS 

the Father in a glory of angels holds a crown. The colour 
is very harmonious, the robe is light blue, the under- 
garment is red and there is a thin veil of white ; all the 
drapery is flowered with gold. The background is a de- 
sign in blue, each square being filled with an animal study 
in gilt. Behind Madonna two angels support a rich 
hanging. S. Anthony and the two donors are indeed the 
only undecorated elements in the picture. Sienese in- 
fluence is strongly marked throughout. Madonna is a 
passive and unemotional woman ; the heavenly music and 
the heavenly glory which surrounds her awaken no response 
of any kind. The picture is too unsubstantial to be real ; 
it is too unimaginative to be ideal. The figures suggest 
no actual existence ; they are symbols treated with little 
attempt at relief. There is a pensive atmosphere of 
devotion, and a feeling tender rather than powerful. Be- 
sides all this the picture is a charming study of colour, 
which comes naturally to so many of the painters who 
lived in these wide upland valleys. Some one has said 
that this is the most beautiful of all Umbrian paintings, 
and when we stand before it, it hardly seems worth while 
to contradict such a saying. 

A number of frescoes have been recovered from a coating 
of plaster : representations of Madonna and Child, the 
Crucifixion, figures of the Archangel Michael, S. Catherine, 
and S. Antonio, the last being ascribed to Palmerucci. 

The Palazzo Ducale. In the year 1384 the people of 
Gubbio are said to have driven out the ruling family of the 
Gabrielli in order to welcome the sway of Antonio Count 
of Montefeltro. Whether this be an accurate statement of 
what happened or no, the town became part of the posses- 
sions of the family which ruled as Counts of Montefeltro 
and Dukes of Urbino. In the fifteenth century Frederick 
Duke of Urbino began to build a palace in Gubbio, and the 
work was continued by his son Guidobaldo. In 1474 
Frederick received the English order of the Garter, and in 
1504 Guidobaldo was also made a Knight. He sent Bal- 
thasar de Castiglione, the author of the " Cortegiano," to 



CITTA DI CASTELLO 271 

represent him at the installation, and it was to the palace 
at Gubbio that the envoy returned to give an account of 
his reception. The use of the Garter among the ornaments 
of the building recalls the dignity bestowed on the two 
Dukes. On the death of Guidobaldo, the Dukedom of 
Urbino passed into the family of the Delia Rovere. Their 
arms will be noticed on some of the monuments in the 
town. The building of the palace is falling into ruin, but 
the courtyard still shows how graceful and dignified were 
the palaces built by the great men of the Renaissance. 

The great hall is a magnificent chamber with two very 
fine fireplaces. The view from the window is particularly 
characteristic. 

The Duomo. Opposite to the entrance of the courtyard 
of the palace is the Duomo, an aisleless building with 
wooden roof supported on pointed arches. 

Over the main door is a circular window with the Agnus 
Dei above it, and around it are the symbols of the four 
Evangelists, curious examples of forms half men, half 
animals. 

In the nave of the Duomo there is, in the first chapel to 
the l v Madonna and Child between SS. Ubaldo and 
Sebastian, by Sinibaldo Ibi (working 1528). In the third 
chapel, to the l., there is S. Mary Magdalene crowned by 
angels, by Timoteo Viti (1467-15 2 3). In the tenth chapel, 
to the l., Eusebio di S. Giorgio (working 1 492-1527) has 
painted a Nativity with shepherds in adoration and the 
Magi in the background. 

In a room off the sacristy there is preserved a fine vest- 
ment of Flemish work presented by Pope Marcellus II. in 
1 555- I n the centre of the Cope is the Last Supper. The 
other scenes are the Agony in the Garden, the Kiss of 
Judas, Christ before Pilate, the Crowning with Thorns, the 
Flagellation, and the Bearing of the Cross. 

CITTA DI CASTELLO 
[Citta di Castello, the ancient Tifernum Tiberinum, is 

f 



272 SMALLER UMBRIAN TOWNS 

on the railway line from Arezzo and Fossato, between the 
stations of San Sepolcro and Gubbio. It is situated in the 
Valley of the Tiber at a point where there is a fine effect 
of a wide fertile plain between two mountain ridges. 
(The hotel is quite possible for a short stay.) The town 
was for the greater part of the history under the protection 
of the Holy See ; but the citizens ruled themselves by 
their own magistrates and at times declared their inde- 
pendence, making wars and alliances on their own account. 
From the beginning of the fourteenth century a factious 
and turbulent spirit among the people prevented stability 
and prosperity. As the inevitable result of lack of unity 
the town became the prey of ambitious rivals and passed 
through the hands of the Pietramala of Arezzo, of the 
Perugians, of Braccio Montone, of Guidantonio Monte- 
feltro, and of Piccinino. Finally, in the middle of the 
fifteenth century, the family of Vitelli rose to supremacy 
and under the protection of the Church ruled over their 
fellow-citizens for more than a century. The Renaissance 
palaces built by members of the family form one of the 
chief features of the town.] 

The Duomo stands on the site of a previous church, of 
which the round campanile remains. The present build- 
ing was begun in 1466. In 1488 it was continued on the 
design of Elia di Bartolommeo Lombard o. It was finished 
in 1529 and consecrated in 1530. There seems to be no 
ground for supposing that Bramante was concerned with 
the design. To the l. of the high altar there is a picture of 
the Transfiguration, by 11 Rosso. 

In the Sala Capitolare there are a few pictures : Annun- 
ciation, by Francesco di Castello ; Madonna and Child, 
painted on a gold background, school of Siena ; figure of 
a bishop, school of Siena ; copy of a small picture by 
Perugino ; portrait of Bishop Tormiolo. In another room 
is preserved a fine altar front said to have been given by 
Pope Celestine II. (1143-1144). In the centre is Christ 
seated within the mandorla with the book in one hand 
and the other raised in blessing. To the l., in the upper/ 



CITTA DI CASTELLO 273 

row, the Annunciation, the Salutation, and the Nativity. 
In the lower row, the Flight into Egypt and the Kiss of 
Judas. To the R. of the central figure, in the upper row, 
Adoration of the Magi, and Presentation in the Temple. 
In the lower row, the Crucifixion and three saints, probably 
SS. Amanzio Florid o and either Crescenziano or Donino. 
The central figure of Christ is treated in a bold and large 
way — the face is broad, the hair and beard are worked in 
fine lines close to the head, the eyes are prominent — at 
the sides are the sun, moon, and stars, and at the corners 
the four symbols of the Evangelists. In the Flight into 
Egypt the Child is carried on the shoulders of Joseph ; 
Madonna, riding on the ass, stretches her hands out folded 
as in prayer, while the Child turns to look at her and gives 
the blessing. The gesture of Madonna is repeated in the 
Nativity. The Crucifixion is treated in the manner of the 
twelfth century : the eyes are closed, the head is slightly 
bent, the arms are stretched straightly, and the feet are 
nailed separately. The figures are in silver gilt, the back- 
ground in plain silver. It is a striking, vigorous, and 
splendid thing, Romanesque in character, rude in work- 
manship. The general effect is that of strength rather 
than beauty. It is entirely free of the laborious niggling 
which the silversmiths of later centuries were apt to fall 
into. A crozier of the fifteenth century is adorned with 
enamels and figures graven in silver. There is in the same 
room a damaged panel, Madonna and Child with S. John 
Baptist. 

The Palazzo Comunale is close to the Duomo. It is a 
fine building in the pointed style. It dates from the 
beginning of the fourteenth century. The staircase is a 
picturesque piece of architectural design. In the Salone 
are a series of portraits of the Vitelli family. 

The building which contains the Galleria Comunale was 
originally the Church of S. Filippo. 

No. 2. Madonna and Child with saints, dated 141 7. 

No. 3. Madonna and Child with angels, attributed to 
Meo da Siena, 



274 SMALLER UMBRIAN TOWNS 

No. 4. Coronation of the Virgin, attributed to Ghir- 
landaio. 

No. 6. Presentation of the Virgin, by Raffaello dal 
Cplle. 

No. n. Madonna and Child, painted on gold back- 
ground, Tuscan school. 

No. 15. Annunciation, by Francesco di Castello. 

Nos. 16 and 17. Crucifixion, and the Creation of Eve, 
supposed to be copies from designs by Raphael. 

No. 19. Martyrdom of S. Sebastian, by Luca Signorelli. 

No. 20. Madonna and Child, attributed to Francesco di 
Castello. 

No. 22. The assumption of the Virgin, ascribed to Luca 
delta Robbia, in blue and white glaze with a polychrome 
border ; the figures of the Apostles are in unusually high 
relief. 

No. 23. Gonf alone, on one side the Crucifixion, on the 
other Mater Misericordia, by an unknown painter of the 
sixteenth century. 

No. 28. Gonfalone, on one side Christ in glory, on the 
other the story of S. Catherine. 

No. 32. Madonna and Child with angels, in glazed terra- 
cotta with a border of fruit, etc., in polychrome. 

No. 33. Nativity with shepherds in adoration, in terra- 
cotta only partly glazed, by Andrea delta Robbia. 

No. 29. Annunciation, in glazed terra-cotta. 

Nos. 30 and 31. Putti, in glazed terra-cotta. 

No. 34. Gonfalone, ascribed to Luca Signorelli. On one 
side the Baptism of Christ, on the other S. John the Baptist. 

No. 37. A large panel, by Signorelli. Madonna and 
Child with Sta. Cecilia and other saints. 

No. 35. Six figures of saints, ascribed to Luca Signorelli. 

Nos. 42 and 43. Deposition and Assumption, by Raffaello 
dal Colle. 

In the centre of the hall a fifteenth-century monstrance, 
in silver and enamel. In the side rooms there are a few 
pictures of no particular interest. 

The largest of the palaces built by the Vitelli is the 



TREVI 275 

Palazzo Vitelli a Sant' Egidio, near the railway station. 
Others are Palazzo Vitelli a S. Giocomo (via Cavour), 
Palazzi Mancini and Bufalini, both in the Piazza Vitelli. 
In the Via della Cannoniera is the Palazzo Vitelli della 
Cannoniera, with graffiti of the sixteenth century on the 
facade. 

TREVI 

Trevi, the ancient Trebia, was famed as the place which 
supplied the great beams for the roofs of the Roman 
basilicas. It is possible that the name contains an allu- 
sion to the wood (trabes) used for this purpose. 

From the railway station it takes about three-quarters 
of an hour to drive up the steep hill to the town. The road 
passes the Church of Sta. Maria delle Lagrime. In the 
l. transept of this church is an Entombment by Lo Spagna. 
It is a mannered and poor piece of work. Its 
principal interest, indeed, is that we can gauge the differ- 
ence between Perugino and his disciple by a comparison 
with the Adoration of the Magi painted on the other 
side of the church. Perugino painted this picture, it is 
said, when he was about seventy-five years old. It shows 
in a most striking way the unquestionable superiority 
of the master. It is just such a composition as he had 
often painted before ; through the open stable we see a 
beautiful Umbrian landscape : horsemen move about, 
shepherds tend their sheep, and in the foreground Madonna 
with a grave face, broad and open, sits with the Child on 
her knee, while the king kneels and presents his gift. 

The Duomo is dedicated in the name of S. Emiliano, the 
patron and bishop of the town, who was martyred under 
Diocletian. In the lunette above the door is the figure of 
the saint holding his pastoral staff. Two lions crouch at 
his feet in submission. In the interior there are three 
ornate altar-pieces by Rocco da Vicenza of the sixteenth 
century. 

In the small Pinaeoteca (Palazzo del Municipio) is a 
Coronation of the Virgin, attributed to Lo Spagna ; a 



276 SMALLER UMBRIAN TOWNS 

triptych of the fourteenth century in the style of the Floren- 
tine school, and several other unimportant pictures. 

From the gate of the town nearest to Foligno a pretty 
road shaded with trees leads to the Convent of S. Martino. 
Over the door of the church there is a picture of Madonna 
and Child with two adoring angels, by Tiberio d' Assist. 

Within the church and facing the visitor there is, to the 
R. (by a painter of the school of Foligno), Madonna adoring 
the Child ; S. Francis to the l. ; and S. Anthony of- Padua 
to the R. To the l., by Lo Spagna, S. Martin divides his 
robe with the beggar. S. Martin has a trifling face ; the 
beggar, on the other hand, has a truly professional air. 

In a chapel to the l. of the church, and separate from 
it, Lo Spagna has painted a large picture of the Assumption 
of the Virgin. The mandorla in which Madonna is carried 
up is formed of cherub heads, mechanically treated and 
crudely coloured. To the l., there are SS. John the 
Baptist and Jerome ; to the R., SS. Francis and Anthony 
of Padua, who carries a flame in his hand. The work is 
dated 1512. 

Temple of Clitunno 

About four miles from Trevi and eight from Spoleto 
stands the small Church of San Salvatore, built in the form 
of a Roman temple in the fifth century, probably from 
materials of an older building ; note the Constantinian 
monogram. Near by is the source of the River Clitunno, 
famous since Roman times for the clearness of its water 
and for the beauty of the situation. 

SPOLETO 

The situation of Spoleto is one of great beauty. The 
ancient city stands upon a hill, with a background of higher 
peaks. It commands a wide view over the plain, with the 
distant towns of Trevi, Foligno, Spello, and Assisi forming- 
white spots upon the blue hillsides to the R., and farther 
still the outline of Perugia against the sky, to the l. 



SPOLEW 277 

A magnificent gorge, formed by the River Tessino, 
divides the town from the steep sides of Monte Luco, 
which are covered with ilex-trees. 

The history of Spoleto is as varied and picturesque as her 
scenery. The part which she has played has been the 
result of her geographical position in relation to Rome. 
In a commanding situation, close to the Flaminian Way, 
Spoleto has been the coveted possession both of the great 
Republic and of her enemies. 

A Roman colony was planted here in 240 B.C., and gave 
valuable assistance about twenty years later, when Hanni- 
bal and his Carthaginian forces, having defeated the 
Romans at the Lake of Trasimeno, attacked Spoleto on 
his way to the south. The inhabitants drove him back 
from their gates, and, instead of continuing his route to 
Rome, he turned aside and went into the northern part of 
Apulia. A gateway of the Roman period, which may be 
passed on the way from the station by making a short 
detour on foot, is known as the Porta d'Annibale, or Porta 
della Fuga, and has a Latin inscription referring to the 
event. 

There are several other remains of Roman times in the 
town. In the Via di Druso, a street opening out of the 
Piazza del Mercato, there is a plain, heavy arch, embedded 
for the most part in the roadway and adjoining houses. On 
it is a dedication to Germanicus and Drusus, the son and 
the adopted son of Tiberius. 

The Municipio stands on the remains of a Roman house, 
said to have been that in which the mother of Vespasian 
lived. Traces of a Roman theatre also have been dis- 
covered in the Piazza Vittorio Emanuele. 

During the centuries of invasion, when Ostrogoths, Lom- 
bards, and Franks overran the country, Spoleto continued 
to be a place of importance. Its position was strengthened 
by the fortifications built by Theodoric the Goth. 

During the Lombard occupation Spoleto became the seat 
of one of the duchies into which the conquered territory of 
Italy was divided. The dukes maintained an independent 



278 SMALLER UMBRIAN TOWNS 

position, extending their domains by conquest, and making 
treaties on their own account with other Powers. 

The long reign of Theudelap, from 60 1 to 653, greatly 
increased the strength and independence of the duchy. 
This duke is said to have been the builder of the Duomo, 
and of the magnificent aqueduct, now called the Ponte 
delle Torri, which not only brings water into the town from 
Monte Luco, but provides a footway across the ravine. 
The upper part of the present structure, with pointed 
arches, is work of the fourteenth century. 

The Dukes of Spoleto were the builders and supporters 
of many abbeys and monasteries in the neighbourhood. 

The hill, Monte Luco, overlooking the city, became 
renowned also as a spiritual stronghold ; for, in about the 
year 550, a Syrian pilgrim of the name of Isaac, fleeing from 
Rome, then in the hands of the barbarians, took refuge in 
Spoleto. It is said that one day he remained so long in 
prayer in the church that he was rudely turned out by one 
of the attendants. He then determined to seek God no 
longer in the midst of the haunts of men, but in solitude. 
He established himself as a hermit among the ilex groves 
on the slopes of Monte Luco, and there passed a life of 
contemplation. His example was followed by others. 
Monte Luco became another Thebaid, and the woods were 
crowded with little huts where the holy men spent their 
days in social solitariness. 

A winding path through the wood leads up the slopes to 
a small Franciscan convent. The path lies mostly in 
shadow under the closely growing ilex-trees, but ferns and 
flowers grow freely by the wayside, and every here and 
there between the branches there is a vision of the city 
and the plain below and of the surrounding hills. It would 
be difficult to find a more fit place for the pursuit of the 
contemplative life. 

Under Frankish rule the territory was governed by a 
succession of dukes nominated by the Emperor. 

When the Karling empire broke up at the end of the 
ninth century, Duke Guido III., as a descendant of the 



SPOLETO 279 

imperial house, was raised to the throne of Italy. He 
reigned only for a few months and was succeeded by his 
son Lambert, who died while still a youth in 898. 

In 1 155 the city of Spoleto was devastated by the Em- 
peror Frederick Barbarossa. The inhabitants had refused 
to pay the imperial tax laid upon them, and as a punish- 
ment the city was besieged by the Emperor and laid waste 
with fire and sword. Many of the churches were barbar- 
ously destroyed, and the citizens who escaped hid them- 
selves in the woods of Monte Luco. 

In 1 198 the March of Spoleto fell into the hands of Pope 
Innocent III., and the series of German feudal lords came 
to an end with Conrad of Swabia. 

In the middle of the fourteenth century, when the legate 
Albornoz was engaged in re-establishing papal authority in 
Central Italy, he took possession of Spoleto, and judging its 
situation to be important for his purpose, he restored and 
strengthened the fortress. 

From this time onwards La Rocca remained in the pos- 
session of the Popes. Calixtus III., in 1456, gave the city 
of Spoleto, with the title of Duke, to his nephew Pier Luigi 
Borgia ; and Alexandria VI., in 1499, made his daughter, 
Lucrezia Borgia, governor of the town. The new governor 
travelled from Rome with a sumptuous retinue. She rode 
into Spoleto clothed in red and gold, sitting on a white 
mule, and was welcomed with every sign of rejoicing by 
the inhabitants. 

In 1798 Spoleto was occupied by the French Republican 
troops, and a picture by Lo Spagna which was in the 
fortress, and is now preserved in the Municipio, is said to 
have been wilfully damaged by a French soldier's bayonet. 

The papal troops in i860 made a long and gallant resist- 
ance in the town under the leadership of an Irishman, 
Major O'Reilly. On the 27th of September the city was 
taken by the Italian soldiers. 



28o SMALLER UMBRJAN TOWNS 



The Duomo 

The Cathedral of Sta. Maria Assunta is said to have been 
founded in the seventh century by the Lombard Duke, 
Theudelap. The church became the Duomo in 1067, and 
was much destroyed in 1155 when Barbarossa laid waste 
the city. The present construction dates from the twelfth 
century. It is a fine and characteristic example of the 
Romanesque style. 

The Renaissance portico covering the entrance was 
added in 149 1. The facade therefore affords an interesting 
contrast between the characteristics of two styles of archi- 
tecture — the Romanesque and the Renaissance. 

The general effect of the building above the portico is 
picturesque and irregular. The mosaic, the circular 
windows, and the row of shallow arcades are the only 
features which break the spacious masses of wall. The 
warm tones of the masonry and the brilliant colours of the 
mosaic combine well together, and the impression given 
by the whole is imposing, picturesque, and somewhat 
barbarously magnificent. 

On the other hand the Renaissance Portico is severely 
elegant. Everything is uniform, regulated, and carefully 
proportioned. A delicate frieze of sculpture runs along 
the top of the round arches, and the spandrels are filled 
with marble disks of subdued colours. At each end of 
the portico is a small pulpit of great simplicity and 
beauty. 

The Mosaic. An inscription at the bottom of the picture 
gives the name of the artist, Doctor Solsernus, with the 
qualification " summus in arte mo dermis" and the date 
1207, also the names of several assistants. 

The work is Byzantine in character. The drapery is 
arranged in the conventional manner, and the folds are 
outlined with gold. But if we compare the head of Christ 
with the representation in the dome of the Florence Bap- 



SPOLETO 281 

tistery, it will be seen that Solsernus had made considerable 
advance towards a style freer and less ascetic in character. 
The mosaic has been restored. 

Christ is seated upon a throne, with the Virgin on the l. 
and S. John the Evangelist on the R. On the book held 
by the central figure are the words, " I am the Light of the 
World." 

The round window below the mosaic has the four sym- 
bols of the Evangelists carved in high relief at the four 
corners. The circle of the window stands for a figure of 
the globe of the World, throughout which the Light of the 
Gospel was carried by the Evangelists. 

The reasons popularly given for the attribution of the 
signs to the Evangelists are as follow : — 

S. Luke in his gospel dwells more than the other writers 
upon the priestly lineage of Christ, and he begins his nar- 
rative with the priesthood of Zachariah ; therefore he is 
represented by the ox, the principal victim used in the 
sacrifices of the priests. 

S. Matthew relates the generation of Christ as a man. 
Llis gospel relates to the humanity of the Saviour. He is 
therefore depicted with the face of a man. 

S. Mark begins with the voice of one crying in the 
wilderness. Now the voice in the wilderness is that of a 
lion. Hence this animal is fitly chosen for his symbol. 

S. John, more than the other writers, contemplates the 
Light Eternal, and is therefore figured by the Eagle, which 
alone of all the birds can gaze at the sun. 

The two human figures and the three pillars that support 
the circle of the window have no doubt some symbolical 
significance, and may be compared with the three similar 
figures under the large window of the Duomo at Assisi. 

Before entering the church some fragments of marble 
reliefs, built into the walls within the portico, should be 
noticed. 

There^are several panels of Romanesque workmanship, 
and high-up on the side wall (to the l. of the central door) 
are some graceful designs of Italo-Byzantine style. One 



282 SMALLER UM BRIAN TOWNS 

fragment in delicate relief represents a stag on either side 
of a vase. 

The lintel and jambs of the central door are covered 
with sculpture in relief. The name of the sculptor, Gre- 
gorius Melioranzius, is carved in the middle of the l. jamb, 

The design is graceful, and many of the figures are in- 
troduced very ingeniously into the circles formed by the 
branches, but the work does not show the same high 
qualities as the similar scroll round the doorway of S. 
Pietro. 

Such designs as these are frequently found on the jambs 
and lintels of Romanesque doorways. The main theme is 
generally a conventionalised vine bearing grapes. Many 
figures of men and animals are found among the branches, 
eating the leaves or gathering the fruit. The vine is the 
Church, which provides spiritual nourishment and safety 
for the healing of the nations. 

The interior was restored in the seventeenth century, 
and the chief object of interest now is the series of frescoes 
by Filippo Lipfii, the pupil of Lorenzo Monaco, and the 
follower of Masaccio. 

This artist came to Spoleto towards the end of his life 
and painted a series of pictures of the history of the Virgin 
in the apse. The work left unfinished by Fra Filippo, who 
died in Spoleto in 1469, was completed by Fra Diamante, 
one of his disciples. The paintings are worthy of careful 
study, for although they are grievously damaged, it is pos- 
sible to appreciate in them the forces which were moving 
the Florentine artists of the fifteenth century. 

The semi-dome is filled with the Coronation of the Virgin, 
and below are three scenes : the Annunciation (to the l.), 
the Death of the Virgin (in the centre), and the Nativity (to 
the R.). 

The frescoes cover the whole area of the semi-dome 
and the walls below ; their breadth and freedom and their 
magnificent scale is stimulating. There is a vigour, a 
keenness, a kind of mental vivacity unusual in the work of 
Fra Filippo. Youths have a true joie de vivre, old men are 







o 

O 
PQ 






I 



* 



SPOLETO 283 

staid , many of the women are not only beautiful but of 
vigorous character, everywhere there is some point of 
interest , some fresh angle of view. 

The Annunciation. Madonna is no longer the common- 
place type of the painter's earlier years. Whatever may 
be the charm of the panels in Florence, at Spoleto the 
conception is stronger, the figure has character as well 
as grace, and if the mystical quality is subordinate there 
is a powerful rendering of a striking personality. There 
are no trifling accessories — nothing is tentative, it is a 
work more vital, more free from personal idiosyncrasy than 
any other of Fra Filippo's painting. 

The Nativity. Little more than a shadow remains of a 
magnificent composition. 

The Death of the Virgin. The scene is laid on a plat- 
form of rocks. To the l. is a steep hill with cornices 
running round it, like Dante's description of the Mountain 
of Purgatory. 

The figure of Christ in a " mandorla " carrying the soul 
of His Mother is almost effaced. S. Thomas, kneeling as he 
receives the girdle, can just be distinguished. 

The Coronation of the Virgin, in the semi-dome. Much 
of the landscape background has disappeared, and some 
of the colours have become harsh. Mary is crowned, not 
by the Son, but by the Father, who is seated upon a 
throne and wears a magnificent tiara. The figures are 
placed in an iris-coloured halo studded with stars. Above 
the rainbow is a great light representing the Sun of 
Righteousness, while the earthly sun and moon appear 
under the feet of the principal figures. 

Round about is a company of angels, who sing, dance, 
and play upon musical instruments. Some give flowers 
to the others. Beneath the angels are the righteous men 
and women of the Old Testament. Beginning on the R., the 
names of the women printed below them are as follows : — 
Eve, the sibyl Tiburtina, Rachel, Bathsheba, Leah, the 
sibyl Erythrsea, Esther, and one whose name is unrecognis- 
able. The men are as follows (beginning in the centre) : — 



284 SMALLER UMBRIAN TOWNS 

Adam, John the Baptist, Daniel, Elias (?), Micah, 
Hosea (?), Amos. 

The scene is partly of historical and partly of a devo- 
tional character. It may be considered as the glorification 
of the Virgin, following her death and burial. With the 
introduction of the prophets and sibyls it becomes also a 
devotional picture, signifying the triumph of the spiri + jal 
Church typified by the Virgin. The kneeling witnesses 
who take part in the mystery are types afforded by the old 
dispensation significant of the future Church. 

Adam and Eve, the origin of the human race, are those 
by whom death and sin entered into the world, thus neces- 
sitating the Incarnation. The Virgin is often regarded as 
the second Eve, bringing life to the world, through obe- 
dience, as the first Eve brought death through disobedience. 
Bathsheba is a type of Mary, because she sat upon a 
throne on the right hand of her son. Esther, who inter- 
ceded for her people before the king, is a figure of the 
Virgin herself— the intercessor for the faithful. The sybil 
Erythrsea generally holds a white rose, having predicted 
the Annunciation. The sibyl Tiburtina pointed out the 
vision of the Virgin and Child to the Emperor Augustus, 
warning him that a Hebrew child should be born who 
should rule over the gods themselves. 

At the entrance to the chapel (left of the choir) is the 
grave of the artist Filippo Lippi, who died in 1469. The 
tomb was erected by Lorenzo de' Medici, and the inscrip- 
tion by Politian may be roughly translated : " Here now, 
I, Phillipus, lie buried, the ornament of painting, the charm 
of whose wonderful hand every one knew. I, the painter, 
could with my hand give life to the colours, so that the be- 
holder thinks that he hears them speak. Nature even is 
astonished, and copies my figures ; and she confesses to 
me that I, as she, have power to create." 

On the floor, opposite, is a fine sepulchral stone to a 
member of the Orsini family, dated 1581. 

In the Winter Choir is a picture by Lo Spagna (painting 
1500-1532 ? a pupil of Perugino, and influenced by 



SPOLETO 285 

Raphael). The subject is the Madonna and Child, with 
saints. 

In the first chapel to the r. are some much damaged 
frescoes by Pinturicchio . 

The Baptistery 

The Baptistery is a small building, square in plan, 
entered from the porch of the church. 

In early times separate buildings were raised for the ad- 
ministration of baptism, which only took place twice in the 
year. It was convenient, also, to have a separate building, 
as unbaptised persons were not permitted to be present 
at the celebration of the mysteries. 

The roofs and walls are covered with frescoes, which are 
of no value as works of art, but are worth notice on account 
of the scheme of ideas represented. 

In the vault facing the door is Adam, holding an apple, 
significant of the fall into sin. Two small scenes at the 
sides represent the creation of the body and soul of Adam. 

In the vault to the l., man makes his first step to recovery 
under the Old Law administered by the High Priest. The 
small pictures represent the Burning Bush and the Salva- 
tion of the Israelites at the Red Sea. 

The vault opposite is that of the New Law. The small 
pictures represent the release of the Israelites by the Egyp- 
tians, and the Sacrifice of Isaac, typical of escape from 
the bondage of the Old Law, and of the sacrifice that was to 
make all men free. In the centre a figure stands at the 
altar, on which is bread and wine, the source of strength 
to believers, and the reward of faith. 

The vault over the entrance door shows a man clinging 
to the Vine of the Lord, the safety which he finds in it is 
typified in the two small pictures of Noah and his family 
entering the Ark ; and the Ark floating on the waters. 
Below is the Ascension of Elijah, pointing to the ultimate 
hope of mankind. 

On the wall opposite the entrance is a large Crucifixion 



286 SMALLER UMBRIAN TOWNS 

with the Madonna and the twelve Apostles. The Death 
on the Cross recalls the saying of S. Paul, that as we are 
buried with Christ through baptism, like Him we shall be 
raised up from the dead and walk in the newness of life. 

The font has sculptured upon it the Nativity, the Presen- 
tation, the Adoration, the Circumcision, the Flight into 
Egypt, Christ among the Doctors, the Baptism, and the 
Miracle at Cana. 



The Church of S. Pietro 

This ancient church outside of the city is one of the most 
striking of the Romanesque buildings in Italy. 

It has a magnificent situation on the slope of the hill, 
with a little piazza in front, which is reached by a long 
flight of steps. Behind rise the wooded heights of Monte 
Luco, and in front is a wide view over the city and the 
plain to the hills in the background. The church was 
originally founded in the fifth century, and served as the 
cathedral of Spoleto until 1067. When the town was 
attacked and burned by Frederick Barbarossa in the 
middle of the twelfth century, this isolated building was 
greatly damaged. 

The style and date of the sculpture. The earliest work 
of all upon the church is an archaic relief of S. Michael 
killing the dragon, above the side door to the left. Some 
fragments above the door of entrance to the house of the 
Priore (on the right) are apparently works of the same date. 

Round the central door there are two systems of sculp- 
ture. One series, connected with the jambs and lintel, is 
distinguished by unusual grace and refinement. The 
treatment and detail suggest Byzantine influence. 

To r. and l. of this highly finished sculpture there is 
another series totally diff erent in character. The style and 
the material are both rude, in comparison. This work is 
characterised by vigour and simplicity. It is the sculpture 
of men who have much to say with little technical power of 
expression. 







•8 ° 

v. < 

o w 



SPOLETO 2S7 

The general theme is the way of the soul through the 
dangers and temptations of this life ; and the assistance 
which the penitent may obtain from S. Peter in order to 
escape from eternal punishment, and attain to everlasting 
blessedness. 

We begin with the reliefs round the central door. On 
the jambs and lintel is a conventionalised Vine. This vine 
has the cross placed among its branches, and is a symbol 
of the Church of Christ upon earth. 

The figures of animals which divide the geometrical 
designs are identical in subject upon the two sides. 

In the lowest panels is a pair of oxen wearing the yoke, 
followed by a man. 

This is the Romanesque artist's way of showing us how 
man began his spiritual career under the yoke of the Law. 
It is the yoke from which the Gospel made man free. 

In the centre is a stag killing a serpent, significant of 
the baptised Christian overcoming the vices which attack 
him. When the Law had done its work, man entered upon 
a positive state, and, with the help of grace, struggled with 
the sins which beset him. 

At the top is a peacock eating grapes, a figure of the soul 
which has attained to the blessedness of everlasting life. 

The panels thus represent the three periods into which 
the life of the human race may be divided : (1) the reign 
of Law, when man lived in servile obedience ; (2) the 
reign of Grace, when man lives in filial obedience in faith ; 
(3) the reign of Love, when man lives in the freedom of 
the spirit. 

The stag is a biblical figure for the Christian thirsting for 
grace (Psalm xlii.), and, according to the natural historians 
of the time, the stag was the great enemy of serpents. 

The peacock was used as an emblem of immortality on 
account of the beauty of its feathers renewed every year, 
and because of the supposed incorruptibility of its flesh. 

Turning now to the panels in high relief on the walls at 
each side, the subjects illustrated are the temptations and 
sins which beset the pilgrim on his way through life, and 



288 SMALLER UMBRIAN TOWNS 

the power of S. Peter, in absolving the penitent and secur- 
ing his soul from hell. 

We begin with the top panel on the right. Nearest to 
the central door Christ prepares to wash the feet of S. 
Peter, who protests, drawing his feet under him. Then the 
disciple, made conscious of his error, lays his hand upon 
his head, saying, " Not my feet only." 

The panel below this represents the calling of Peter and 
Andrew. The incident is told with the utmost simplicity 
and directness. 

The two corresponding panels at the top, on the opposite 
side of the door, illustrate the office of S. Peter under the 
dramatic form of a contrast drawn between the death of 
the penitent and the death of the sinner. 

In the highest panel, the penitent lies peacefully upon his 
bed. At the head stands S. Peter with the key of absolu- 
tion, and holding a rope which he has loosed from off 
the penitent. The rope signifies the bondage of sin. At the 
foot of the bed the soul of the dead man is weighed in the 
balance. On one side is the guardian angel with a scroll 
inscribed with his good deeds, on the other side is a devil 
who tries to pull the scale to his side. He has a scroll upon 
which are the words, " Doleo quia non est mens " (I grieve 
because he is not mine). Behind the devil, another image 
of S. Peter presides over the judgment ; he is seated upon 
a throne and holds a key. 

In the scene below is the deathbed of the sinner, whose 
arms are bound with the bonds of unabsolved sins. At the 
foot of the bed the balance falls to the side of the devils, 
who seize their prey. To the r. the guardian angel flees 
away with an eloquent gesture ; to the l. the mouth of 
hell is represented as a pot into which the condemned are 
thrown head foremost. 

In the six lower panels (three on each side), the dangers 
of Pride, and the nature of the cunning snares laid by the 
devil to deceive man, are shown by means of allegories and 
fables. These sculptures belong to the class of moral ex- 
amples used by the popular preachers in their sermons. On 



SPOLETO 289 

the l. are three examples drawn from the history of the 
lion, inculcating the merits of Humility and the dangers of 
Pride. 

The highest of the three represents a man armed with an 
axe about to slay a lion, whose forepaws are caught in the 
cleft of a tree-trunk. The writers do not know of any 
other representation of this incident in sculpture, nor have 
they found it used as an " exemplum " in the popular col- 
lections. Like the other panels, it may be a warning 
against presumption, as the over-confident lion, trusting 
in his strength, falls a victim to the superior cunning of 
the man. The scenes below illustrate how the clement lion 
spares the humble suppliant who begs for mercy, while he 
shows himself without pity for the man who comes before 
him boldly, trusting in his own strength and in his 
weapons. 

The lion in this character was held to be an image of the 
Church, merciful to the penitent, but without pity for the 
proud and heretical. 

The panels on the other side, to the right, illustrate the 
cunning snares laid for man by his arch-enemy the devil. 

In the third scene from the top (under the Calling of 
Peter and Andrew), is the story of how the fox secures his 
prey by shamming death. 

The fox lies on his back, apparently dead, but the sculp- 
tor has given an expression of sly cunning to the animal's 
open mouth and watchful eye. The birds stand on little 
mounds, and stretch out their foolish necks towards their 
foe, whose feet are already drawn up ready to spring. The 
moral drawn by the Bestiaries is that when the devil has 
lured people into sin, he springs up like the fox, and thrusts 
them into hell. 

Below this, the hypocritical character of the great de- 
ceiver is illustrated by the story of the Wolf-scholar. The 
wolf, anxious for an opportunity to capture a sheep, feigns 
penitence and conversion. He has put on the scholar's 
hood, and holds his lesson-book ; but, according to the 
fable, he had only reached the letter D of the alphabet 



290 SMALLER UMBRIAN TOWNS 

when he made off with one of his fellow-students. Finally, 
in the lowest panel, we see the triumph of good over evil. 
The dragon, typical of deceit and craftiness, is met and 
routed by the vigilant Christian, made as strong and 
courageous as a lion with the help of grace. 

Palazzo Pubblico 

In the Palazzo Pubblico there are several ancient inscrip- 
tions, fragments of sculpture, and a small Pinacoteca. 

On the wall of the staircase are interesting fragments of 
sculpture. 

(i.) A Tympanum from S. Niccolo, with the cross en- 
twined among vine branches. 

(2.) A series of small sculptures representing the martyr- 
dom of S. Brizio, the first Bishop of Spoleto, and called^ the 
Apostle of Umbria. 

In the first scene, (a) the King sitting on his throne, con- 
demns the Bishop. 

(b) The Bishop is bound to a cross, and delivered by an 
angel. 

(c) The Bishop is given to wild beasts, and they make 
obeisance before him. 

(d) The Bishop is beheaded. 

(e) Christ appears in blessing. 

On the same wall there are several tabernacles of Renais- 
sance design, and fragments of Byzantine sculpture repre- 
senting birds feeding upon grapes. 

A mosaic pavement of the Roman period was discovered 
below the site of the Municipal Building, and it is said that 
the Roman house, of which it formed a part, belonged to the 
mother of Vespasian. 

In the small picture gallery enter Room I. and turn to 
theR. 

No. 9. Madonna and Child. 

No. 5. Crucifixion of the early type, with the eyes open 
and the arms extended straightly. 

No. 31. Madonna and Child, by Mezzastris. 



SPOLETO 291 

No. 30. Remains of an altar-piece. 

No. 29. Madonna and Child, ascribed to Antonello da 
Messina. 

No. 21. Madonna and Child with mendicants, by 
Lorenzo da Viterbo. 

No. 22. Fresco of the Annunciation, school of Lo 
Spagna. 

No. 16. Two saints, school of Matteo da Gualdo. In- 
scription relating to the visit of Barbarossa in 1155. 

On a table in the centre of the room : choral books, 
the mace of the city, two processional crossesg 

Room II. — Turn to the l. 

No. 36. Madonna and Child, by Tiberio d 9 Assist. 

No. 37. Nativity, by Giacomo di Giovanni, said to be of 
the school of Perugino. 

No. 40. Charity, Justice^ and Faith, by Lo Spagna. 

No. 43. Madonna and Child with four saints, by Lo 
Spagna, probably the most important picture in the col- 
lection. 

No. 48. Madonna and Child with saints, school of Lo 
Spagna. 

Fine chest belonging to the Priors, with six locks. 

In the centre of the room a shrine from Norcia. 

Room III. — Later pictures of small interest. In the 
centre of the room an inscription in ancient dialect trans- 
lated into Latin and Italian. 

Other Churches in Spoleto 

Near to the Piazza del Mercato is the subterranean 
Church of S. Ansano. This small building, dedicated in 
the name of S. Ansano, the martyr and patron of Assisi and 
Siena, is said to have been originally dedicated to S. Isaac, 
the hermit of Monte Luco. The roof rests upon four 
columns, and on the walls are damaged frescoes, probably 
of the eleventh century. In the apse is the Virgin and 
Child, with the Sacrifice of Isaac below. On the wall, to 
the l. of the entrance, are two frescoes, one a scene of 



292 SMALLER UMBRJAN TOWNS 

Martyrdom, the other Christ's meal with the disciples. 
The pieces of bread are marked with a cross, as is the 
custom in the paintings of the catacombs. 

The Church of S. Agostino del Crocefisso, formerly 
S. Salvadore, is some distance without the gates, in the 
modern Campo Santo. It is said to have been built 
upon the site of a Roman temple, in the fifth or sixth 
century. 

There are the remains of three Roman doorways, and 
the architectural features of the facade are thoroughly 
classical in style. The sculptured leaves and crosses upon 
the lintels and the mouldings of the windows and doors are 
extremely delicate and beautiful. In the interior there 
are a number of ancient columns of different lengths, of 
various materials, and of all styles. In some cases the 
base of the classical pillars has been used as a capital. The 
effect of the interior on the whole is extremely picturesque. 
The pillars of the crossing support an entablature of 
classical design. 

On the hills above S. Pietro is the small Romanesque 
Church of S. Giuliano, now desecrated. The entrance 
door has sculptures on the jamb of a symbolical character. 

Animals such as the stag, the lamb, and the hare feed 
upon the leaves of the vine. Peacocks and other birds eat 
the grapes. 

The Sign of the Cross appears among the branches, and 
the whole design is a figure of the Church with its Sacra- 
ments. 

In the interior, the semi-dome and apse are painted with 
mediocre frescoes of the fourteenth century. The crypt is 
sustained by pillars, some of which have the symbol of the 
Lamb in an aureole. 

The Church of S. Giacomo 

About four miles from Spoleto, on the road to 
Trevi, is the Church of S. Giacomo, with frescoes by Lo 
Spagna, 



SPOLETO 293 

In the semi-dome of the choir, in the upper part, is the 
Coronation of the Virgin, based on the design of Fra 
Filippo Lippi in the Duomo at Spoleto. Madonna wears 
a white and golden robe as at Spoleto. There are the 
same ranks of men and women of the Old Dispensation ; 
but the faces are commonplace and heavy, and the com- 
plexions are heightened by obvious patches of red. On the 
wall over the semi-dome there is, on one side, the Angel 
Gabriel, and on the other the Virgin. Over the niche to the 
left, Madonna sits with the Child, attended by angels ; over 
the niche to the right, she rises up to heaven. The whole 
is a short history of the place of Madonna in the scheme 
of human salvation. In the lower part of the semi-dome 
is a large figure of S. James the Great. At each side is 
the history of a miracle worked by him. A man and his 
wife and their son were on pilgrimage to the shrine of S. 
James at Compostella, when the son was wrongfully ac- 
cused of theft by an innkeeper. The young man was 
condemned and hanged. The parents fulfilled their vows 
and visited the shrine. On their return to the place where 
their son had suffered, they found the youth still alive, for 
S. James had supported him, as we see in the fresco to the 
l. The judge refuses to believe in the miracle, declaring 
that the roasted fowls before him are as much alive as the 
young man. Whereupon the birds immediately rose up 
in the dish. This scene is on the r. of the figure of S. 
James. In the niche to the l. are SS. Fabriano, Sebastiano, 
and Rocco. In the niche to the r. are SS. Peter, Anthony 
the Abbot, and S. Bartholomew. The pillars which separate 
the apse from the niches have the figures of S. Lucy (l.), 
and Sta. Apollonia. The conjunction of S. Sebastian 
and S. Rocco point to the probability that the picture 
may have been connected with some visitation of 
plague. 

The whole series of paintings are heavy and uninspired. 
So far as the mere outline of the design of the Coronation, 
there is an evident intention to found upon the fresco of 
Fra Filippo Lippi ; but both the power and the imagination 



294 SMALLER UM BRIAN TOWNS 

of the Florentine are lacking. The common, unrefined, and 
weak forms can have no place beside the vigorous work 
in the Duomo of Spoleto. (For an opinion opposed to 
this see " Renaissance in Italian Art/' part hi. p. 131, by 
Mr Selwyn Brinton.) 



V 
ORVIETO 

NOTE ON THE HISTORY AND PRINCIPAL 
MONUMENTS 

ORVIETO stands on the side of the ancient Volsinii, 
one of the richest and most powerful cities of the 
Etruscan confederation. Hostilities between the Vol- 
sinians and Romans began in 362 B.C., and continued 
over a period of nearly one hundred years. The citizens 
of the Etruscan towns had become famous for their wealth, 
and for their luxurious and effeminate habits. They had 
ceased even to trouble themselves, it was said, with the 
burdens of ruling, and allowed the government of the 
commonwealth to be managed by slaves. They shared in 
the general defeat of the Etruscans at the Vadimonian 
Lake in 310 B.C., and were finally subjugated by the 
Romans in 280 B.C. The conquerors were amazed with 
many of the appliances of civilisation which they found, 
and Pliny repeats the statement that not less than 2000 
statues were carried off by the Romans from this city 
alone. The inhabitants took refuge on the shores of the 
Lake of Bolsena, and there a new Volsinii grew up ; while 
a Roman town gradually arose on the ruins of the Etrus- 
can city, and was called Urbsvetus, of which the name 
Orvieto is a corruption. 

The number of tombs in the neighbourhood, and the 
large collection of works of art derived from them, are 
abundant evidence of the size and importance of the 
Etruscan city, which must have existed for .five or six 

295 



2q6 ORVIETO 

hundred years. Very few and only insignificant traces 
remain of the Roman dominion. 

The history of Orvieto in the Middle Ages resembles 
that of many other Italian communes. It is a history of 
the struggle between the discordant elements which made 
up the population of that confined space — a walled city. 
The citizens from an early period were divided by op- 
posing interests, due to differences in race, with the con- 
sequent differences in political and religious sympathies. 

The Commune, originally governed by Consuls, was 
Guelph in sympathy, and as a rule kept upon friendly terms 
with the papal power. During the twelfth and thirteenth 
centuries, the town succeeded in mastering many of the 
neighbouring feudal lords, and compelled them to become 
citizens within her walls. Thus were sown the seeds of an 
endless political and religious division in the town, for 
the incomers were generally Ghibelline and Imperial in their 
politics, and anti-papal, perhaps even heretical, in their 
religious sympathies. In order to repress these tendencies, 
Bishop Riccardo from 1171 to 12 01 carried on a vigorous 
crusade in the town against heresy, and many of the in- 
habitants were tortured and put to death. This, however, 
did not prove an effective means of procuring permanent 
peace, and the creation of a new officer, a Podesta, for that 
purpose in 1199 was equally unsuccessful. The factions 
were known as " Ecclesiastici," and " Eretici," rather than 
as Guelphs and Ghibellines, and the balance of power lay 
with the ecclesiastical party. 

Alliances were frequently made with Florence, and the 
various forms of government adopted by that Republic 
were copied by the Orvietans. 

The two chief families were the Monaldeschi, whose 
sympathies were with the Guelphs, and the Filippeschi, 
adherents of the Ghibelline party. Continual dissensions 
arose between the two factions. But in spite of this dis- 
union the Commune grew in power and wealth. 

The city was a favourite retreat with the Popes, who 
enriched it with several fine palaces ; and the citizens 



HISTORY AND MONUMENTS 297 

erected large municipal buildings as residences for their 
Podestas and Captains of the People. The massive and 
imposing dwellings raised by private individuals, which 
line the deserted streets of the modern city, are further 
evidence of its former prosperity. 

With the coming of the Emperor Henry VII. into Italy 
in 131 1; the hopes of the Ghibelline party were revived, 
and the Filippeschi made an attempt to deliver Orvieto 
into the hands of the Imperial forces. The plot was dis- 
covered, and for three days during the month of August 
1 31 2 the opposing factions of the citizens fought in the 
streets. No less than four hundred of the party of the 
Filippeschi were killed, and the remnant were driven out 
of the city. Three hundred of the palaces, houses, and 
towers in the Via di Pusterla, belonging to the conquered 
faction, were burned to the ground and have never been 
rebuilt. The family of the Monaldeschi, thus left without 
a rival, increased in power, and within the space of twenty 
years the various members of this family had the supreme 
control of the government entirely in their hands. 

Their power, however, received a serious check from 
the factions which arose among the different branches of 
the family. These branches were distinguished from one 
another by the names of the " Stag," the " Viper," and the 
" Dog," and the peace of the town was continually dis- 
turbed by their disorders. The population declined rapidly 
under the effects of civil war and bad government. It is 
stated that in 1380 there were three thousand families 
living within the walls, and in the space of seventeen years 
there were less than a third of that number, while in 1424 
the population counted only two hundred households. It 
is easy to understand how this state of things was brought 
about when we read that Berardo Monaldeschi in 1386, 
with the help of a company of Breton mercenaries, attacked 
a certain quarter of the town and put to death three 
thousand people. 

In 1345 there was a brief interregnum in the rule of the 
Monaldeschi, due to the conquest of the city by the papal 



298 ORVIETO 

legate, Cardinal Albornoz. This able and warlike prelate 
succeeded in making peace among the citizens. He re- 
established the Studio Generale, a school which had 
existed since 10 13, but had been suppressed by the Mon- 
aldeschi. The Cardinal also rebuilt the Fortress of La 
Rocca, at the north-east entrance of the town. The work, 
however, was interrupted by the death of the legate in 
1367, and the new construction was rapidly pulled down by 
the opponents of the papal party. The site is now con- 
verted into a Public Garden, and commands a fine view 
of the Valley of the Paglia. 

During the next half-century the government of the city 
underwent many transformations. Under the pontificates 
of Boniface IX. (1 389-1404) and Gregory XII. (1406-1417), 
Orvieto was ruled by papal legates. In 1414 it was con- 
quered by King Ladislaus of Naples, and fell under the 
rule of the military captain, Sforza. It was restored to the 
Church by the Perugian condottiere, Braccio, but was once 
more mastered by the " Viper " branch of the Monaldeschi 
in 1437. Finally the exhausted city, emptied of inhabi- 
tants through the continual warfare and succeeding 
pestilences, was reduced in 1460 to the absolute dominion 
of the Pope. Since then Orvieto has ceased to have any 
history of importance, and became part of the kingdom of 
Italy in i860. 

ETRUSCAN ORVIETO 

The Necropolis 

The Etruscan necropolis, on the north-western slopes 
outside of the gates, may be reached on foot from the 
Porta Maggiore, or by carriage from the Porta Cassia on 
the road leading to the railway station. 

By the carriage route we reach first the tombs discovered 
in 1874, which are under the care of a painstaking and 
intelligent custodian, who was present during the first 
excavations. 



ETRUSCAN ORVIETO 299 

The situation is very beautiful; with cliffs rising steeply 
behind and the wide stretch of the valley of the Paglia in 
front. 

These sepulchres are only a small portion of a vast 
cemetery lying at the foot of the cliff s, and encircling the 
entire hill, a veritable city of tombs, to which the dead 
were brought from the houses of the living in the town 
above. Here dwellings of stone were built for the spirits. 
Shrines were raised in the midst of the dead, and offer- 
ings made to those deities who presided over fertility and 
generation. 

The tombs are of an early date, probably before the 
sixth century B.C. They are not caves hollowed out of the 
rocks, but low massive buildings arranged side by side and 
back to back, like houses in the streets of a town. They 
stand now, overgrown with grass and wild flowers, in the 
midst of vineyards and olive gardens. 

The walls, built of large stones neatly laid and without 
mortar, are about nine feet high. The masonry of the 
roof has been dressed into the form of a vault. The tall 
narrow doorways are without any decoration, and have 
simply the name of the owner of the tomb carved upon the 
flat lintel. There are outer and inner doors, with a small 
vestibule between, which may have been used as a sleeping- 
place by the relations when they wished to discover the will 
of the dead. 

It was part of the belief of those who practised the cult 
of the grave that the dead could exert their influence upon 
any one sleeping near their abode, and could reveal to them 
in dreams future events, or even remedies against sickness. 
There was a constant desire also to propitiate the spirits, 
and in early times among the Greeks, slaves were sacrificed 
at funerals in order that the dead might be provided with 
attendants in the world beyond. 

These blocks of tombs at Orvieto have at each corner a 
small chamber, in which skeletons, both male and female, 
were discovered. It is supposed that these are the remains 
of servants and dependants. 



3 oo ORVIETO 

A cippus of stone, generally in the shape of a pine cone, 
and supposed to have a phallic significance, was placed 
upon the roof. Inside the tombs the chamber beyond the 
second pair of doors is furnished for the most part with 
stone benches, upon which the bodies of the dead were 
laid. There are never more than three benches, nor less 
than two. A large number of vases of Bucchero, and some 
painted Grecian vases of archaic style, were found when 
the tombs were discovered, as well as some ornaments and 
a few bronze weapons. All the contents of these sepulchres 
relate to a period before the sixth century B.C. 

From this necropolis we pass to the adjoining farm in the 
direction of the Porta Maggiore to the tombs discovered 
in 1896, one of which has been preserved exactly as it 
was found. These sepulchres have been buried probably 
for centuries under the earth and debris which has fallen 
upon them from the higher ground above, and the entrance 
doors now seem to lead into caves cut out in the hillside. 
But these tombs are, like the rest of the necropolis, built of 
slabs of masonry, the roof being formed of converging 
blocks. They were, as a rule, closed by two stone doors, 
the inner being hermetically sealed. 

In one tomb we can still see the bones of the two owners 
stretched upon the stone beds. A gold ring has dropped 
from the finger gone to dust, and hanging on the walls are a 
number of cups and plates of common earthenware and 
bronze. On the floor beside the benches are large vessels 
for oil and wine. Some of the small vases on the walls may 
have contained perfumes which were supposed to ward off 
the final dissolution of the body. Did the relations who 
placed the food and the drink in these vessels believe that 
the shades dwelt in the narrow chamber and suffered 
hunger and thirst, or were they following an ancient burial 
custom which had only a symbolical significance ? How- 
evev that may have been, we know that they did hold 
funeral feasts, and make offerings to the dead at stated 
periods, for outside of the doorways of many of these 
tombs quantities of the remains of previous feasts were 



ETRUSCAN ORVIETO 301 

discovered^ such as cups and plates, bones of birds, fishes, 
and beasts, and many egg-shells. As we turn from these 
vases and vessels, so much like our own familiar pottery, 
and look out at the landscape, which can have changed 
comparatively little in two thousand years, we are inclined 
to feel that our likenesses to these far-off Etruscans are 
perhaps greater than our differences. 

Those who desire to return to the town on foot may 
be recommended to take the pleasant path, above the 
necropolis, which leads under the bastions of the cliffs. 
On the way we pass a little chapel with a Crucifixion 
painted upon the natural rock ; called the " Crocefisso del 
Tufo," and enter the town by the Porta Maggiore. 

The Tombs of Poggio Roccolo or Settecammini 

Those who visit the Etruscan sepulchres have the good 
fortune to find themselves led out from the towns into the 
surrounding fields and vineyards, and sometimes farther 
still into the heart of the woodland. 

The Tombs at Poggio Roccolo (about three kilometres 
from Perugia) will repay the traveller not only by the 
intrinsic interest of their paintings, but by the beauty of 
the scenery through which he must pass. The excursion 
by carriage occupies two to three hours. The keys of the 
tombs must be obtained in Orvieto. Leaving the city by 
the Porta Romana, we descend the hill in a south-westerly 
direction, following the road to Viterbo. As we climb 
the slopes on the opposite side, passing the Campo Santo, 
we have a clear view of the hill city of Orvieto, with the 
mass of the Cathedral and other buildings standing out 
sharply against the sky. 

From this point of view, the rocks and walls surrounding 
the city rise with striking effect above the olives and 
poplars which clothe the lower slopes. 

Beyond the Campo Santo, the road passes the ancient 
Convent of Santa Trinita, which contains two frescoes by 
Pinturicchio. 

x 



302 0RVIET0 

On the r. wall is the Madonna and Child , with SS. 
Joseph and Bonaventura on the l., and SS. John and 
Jerome on the r. Angels hold a crown over the head of 
Mary. Round the picture is a circle of cherub heads, and 
in the background there are traces of a landscape, but the 
fresco is now much damaged. 

On the opposite wall is a figure of S. Bernardino of Siena, 
with four other saints. 

S. Bernardino carries a scroll with the words, " Mani- 
festavi nominem tuurn hominibus" recalling the special 
mission of the saint to preach the Kingdom of Christ. He 
tried to persuade his hearers everywhere to take down their 
own ensigns, public and private, and put up in their place 
the monogram of Jesus. 

On the r. are S. Anthony of Padua and S. Peter ; on 
the l. ; S. Louis of Toulouse and S. Paul. An angel holds 
a crown over the head of S. Bernardino, and the figures 
are encircled by cherub heads. There is a pleasant 
landscape, and the whole forms a quiet, solemn picture 
with a touch of Umbrian sentiment. 

The picturesque cloisters are decorated with inferior 
frescoes. 

Shortly afterwards the road ascends more steeply, and 
we pass a great fall of rocks called " Sasso Tagliato," where 
it is said a way was miraculously opened. Higher up the 
hill, are the gates of the villa " Buon Viaggio," where Pius 
IX. once paid a visit during his sojourn at Orvieto. The 
road then crosses a bridge, known as the Ponte Marchess, 
with a monument upon it to a Gonzaga cardinal. Soon 
after this the carriage must be left, and we pass on foot 
along a grassy path through chestnut woods to the entrance 
to the Tombs, which were discovered by Signor Golini 
in 1863. In these tombs we see evidence of the 
conflicting influences which affected the Etruscan 
painters. 

On the one hand they were powerfully influenced by 
Greek Art, which reached them through the medium of 
the painted vases imported into Etruria in large numbers. 



ETRUSCAN ORVIETO 303 

They took their conceptions from the Greeks, and copied 
the idealised forms of the Hellenic artists. 

On the other hand they were strongly drawn by their 
own natural tendency towards realism, and by their 
desire to represent things as they saw them, unrestrained 
by any refinements of a cultivated taste. These paintings 
belong to the later period of Etruscan art. Those of the 
second tomb date, it is supposed, from about the year 400 
B.C. The system of colouring is not conventional, as in 
more archaic work ; the faces are individualised by differ- 
ent expressions, and there is a good deal of life and move- 
ment in the figures of the animals. 

The paintings are, however, only mediocre works of 
art, and their chief claim upon our interest is the lifelike 
picture which they give us of the Etruscan people, of the 
customs and habits of a great civilisation. We see them 
at their feasts, at their funerals, at their sports, with every 
detail of costume minutely depicted. The first tomb, 
which is the less well preserved of the two, is known 
as the " Tomba delle due Bighe," the tomb of the two 
chariots. 

On entering the chamber, we see a great stone sarco- 
phagus with its lid removed standing against the wall 
opposite to the entrance. Inside it there are several cups 
and vessels and the remains of a skeleton. 

The roof is cut out of the natural rock in imitation of 
masonry, and a low bench runs round the room. 

The paintings, which are much damaged, represent the 
feasts and sports held at the funeral in honour of the dead. 
There is the same incongruous mixture of gloomy and 
joyful images, of hideous demons and gaily dressed 
revellers, such as we find on the cinerary chests. 

Above the entrance door there are two long striped 
serpents, emblems of the underworld, perhaps regarded 
as protectors of the tomb. A similar pair are painted upon 
the opposite wall, and a few traces remain upon the door- 
posts, of what were once the figures of brutal-looking 
demons, or messengers of death. 



304 ORVIETO 

The scenes on the side walls, on the other hand, show us 
people in the midst of the pleasures of this world, feasting 
and playing, to all appearance absolutely unconscious of 
their surroundings. 

On the wall of entrance, to the r. and l., are fragments 
of chariots drawn by two horses, probably intended to 
represent the races and games held at the funeral. In 
some of the painted tombs we shall see that the soul is 
represented as journeying to the underworld in a horse- 
chariot. Such representations are easily distinguished 
from the funeral sports by the presence of the genii who 
accompany the spirit on its migration. Here in this tomb 
everything indicates that the people are on this earth and 
of the earth. 

The banquet is painted upon the r. wall. Little can 
now be seen except the lower part of the couches, with a 
pair of pigeons perched upon the footstools ; and in the 
upper part of the picture are some of the heads of the 
revellers. Two of these are young men with handsome 
faces of Greek type, wearing white mantles and crowns 
of leaves upon their heads. The names are inscribed upon 
the walls beside the banqueters, who seem to be in eager 
conversation. On the opposite wall are fragments show- 
ing that the scene of the feast was continued round the 
chamber, and at one side the figures of musicians can still 
be traced. On the wall opposite to the entranoe were 
formerly representations of two warriors, possibly the 
owners of the tomb. 

The second tomb, which is close at hand, has well pre- 
served and important pictures. The chamber is divided 
by a partition, which stands out in the centre of the room, 
and is used by the artist as a line of division between the 
subjects represented upon either side. 

In the chamber on the left hand we have scenes of pre- 
paration for a banquet of a purely earthly and material 
nature. In the chamber on the r. are pictures of the 
shades, partaking of unearthly food in the presence of the 
rulers of the underworld. 




Photograph : Brogi 

Picture from the Tomba dell' Orco at Corneto Tarquinia 
Compare with the paintings in the tombs at Poggio Roccolo near Orvieto 



ETRUSCAN ORVIETO 305. 

Beginning with the division on the l. of the entrance 
wal^ we see in the first place the carcases of animals, an 
ox with its head severed, a kid, and a bird hung up as in 
a butcher's shop, and we are spared none of the ugly 
realistic detail. On the adjoining wall a number of busy 
servants prepare the various dishes for the banquet. The 
first figure is that of a man cutting up a piece of meat on 
a table ; next to him is a woman in a short tight tunic, 
superintending the arrangements of various articles of food, 
among which fruits and eggs are conspicuous. These 
provisions were used especially at the funeral feasts, pro- 
bably because of the symbolical meaning attached to them. 
Grapes were sacred to Dionysos, who presided, not only 
over the new growth of spring upon the earth, but over the 
quickening of the seeds hidden under the ground in winter. 
For the same reason the pomegranate, a fruit which lays 
bare its seeds, was consecrated to Persephone. Eggs were 
used as an emblem of second life or resurrection. There 
are servants grouped about this table with the fruits, some 
carrying baskets, others playing upon a kind of double pipe, 
to enliven the labours of the kitchen. At the end of the 
wall is a servant kneading at the three-legged table ; on the 
adjoining wall we find the cook bending over the furnace, 
while another man, furnished with a kind of mallet, attends 
to the contents of. a large vessel. 

On the wall of the partition the servants are seen busily 
carrying the dishes to the banqueting-hall. One man, who 
seems to play the part of major-domo, beckons authorita- 
tively to the servants behind . On the face of the partition 
is a little monkey tied to a tree, said by some to be a 
symbol of the vanity of human life, but by others it is 
regarded as one of the realistic accessories introduced to 
heighten the natural appearance of a company gathered 
together for a festival. 

The scenes on the other side of the partition represent 
the arrival of one newly dead at the banquet of the King 
and Queen of the Underworld. The paintings are either 
by another hand, or the artist has adopted a more refined 



306 ORVIETO 

and less realistic style of painting to suit the change in 
his subject. 

Beginning on the wall of entrance, to the r v we see the 
figure of a young man standing in a Chariot drawn by 
horses. Behind the horses runs a winged female genius, or 
Lasa, holding a scroll in her hand, the record of the life of 
the dead youth. It was believed that the attendant genii, 
or guardian spirits, accompanied human beings through 
their lives, and at death underwent a transformation into 
snakes like the souls themselves. This may account for 
the pair of knotted serpents which the Lasa has twisted 
round her waist. 

The scene of the feast to which the new arrival is hasten- 
ing began on the adjoining wall, but nothing now remains 
except a fragment of a couch and some heads with 
the names beside them. The paintings on the wall at 
the end of the chamber are, however, better preserved, 
and the figures of two men lying upon couches with drink- 
ing-cups in their hands can be clearly seen. 

A cloudy background is painted behind the heads of the 
men as though to indicate some celestial region, and at the 
same time, with a curious mixture of ideas, a number of 
candelabra with lighted candles are placed beside the 
couches, and two domestic pets, one like a cat called 
" Krankru" and an ape or dog called " Kurpu" disport 
themselves upon the footstools. Two musicians with 
instruments stand beside the couches. 

The place of honour on the partition wall is given to the 
majestic group of the King and Queen of Hades, sitting 
upon thrones side by side. Little of the figures remain ex- 
cept the heads, with the words inscribed " Etta/' the Greek 
Aides, and " Phersipnai" the Greek Persephone or Perse- 
phoneia. The head of the god is covered with a wolf's 
skin, and the goddess, who wears ear-rings and a necklace, 
has a sceptre crowned by the figure of a little blue bird. 
There is nothing awful about the appearance of these dread 
deities. Hades, " the Invisible one," and Persephone, 
" the desolating Slayer," are here represented as a comely 



ETRUSCAN ORVIETO 307 

and gracious pair, sharing with mortals in their taste for 
jewels and other ornaments. Such figures are no doubt 
a reflection of the growing desire, with the progress of the 
race, to present a less gloomy view of the soul's existence 
after death, and to depict the possibility of a blissful life, 
for some at least, in the world below. 

The Museums 

The principal Etruscan collections are those of the 
Museo Civico, and of the Conte Faina in the Palazzo Faina. 
A small collection in the town, belonging to Signor Man- 
cini, is also courteously shown to visitors. 

The Museo Civico is in the Palazzo Soliano or Palazzo del 
Papa, a mediaeval building on the r. of the Duomo. 
(Tickets, one lira, to be had from Armoni, the photographer, 
at the corner of the piazza.) 

On the ground floor is a collection of Etruscan tombs, 
sarcophagi, statues, etc. 

Turn to /the l. 

A large stone coffin, with the pots, vases, and other 
objects which were discovered inside it. Fragments of 
terra-cotta decorations from an Etruscan Temple of 
Belle vid ere, antifixes, masks, and statues. The tym- 
panum of the Etruscan Temple, projecting in front of the 
building like a balcony, could not have supported a group 
of statues in stone. The Etruscans used terra-cotta 
figures in high relief, which were attached by nails, and 
when covered with paint had the appearance of a group of 
statuary. 

In the centre of the room is a column of pyramidal 
shape, with the words " Tinia tinesvil," that is, sacred to 
Tinia, the Etruscan deity corresponding to Jove. 

Against the wall, Medusa heads in terra-cotta, both of the 
frightful and of the beautiful type. A large stone sarco- 
phagus with the figure of a man reclining on the lid. The 
thin, sharp face is evidently a portrait. On the face of the 
tomb are two winged figures not unlike the type of Christian 



308 ORVIETO 

angels. The work is said to be of the third century b.c. 
In a glass case is the statue of a goddess known as the 
Venus of Cannicella. This statue was found in 1884, in 
the necropolis under the cliffs, to the south of the city. 
" Turan," the Etruscan Venus, venerated as a manifesta- 
tion of the fertile and reproductive forces of nature, was 
probably worshipped at a shrine raised in the midst of the 
cemetery. Some of the votive offerings were discovered 
in the debris, and are now laid round about the statue. 
The figure of the goddess is an interesting example of the 
influences which affected the Etruscans in the representa- 
tion of religious images. At first purely Oriental forms 
were adopted. The deities were often figured with the 
heads of animals and with wings. But as the influence of 
Greek civilisation spread the Asiatic types were replaced 
by more gracious and natural conceptions of the human 
form, imitated from Hellenic models. 

The head of this Venus is like the archaic primitive god- 
dess of the East, with heavy features and plaits of hair 
arranged in rigid parallel lines. On the other hand, the 
body is in a different and much freer style, and resembles 
the work of the later Greek sculptors. 

In the corner of the room there is an Etruscan Tomb, 
which has been brought from the necropolis lying to the 
north of the city. It is a good example of the type of 
tombs built of stones without cement. The chamber is 
furnished with two stone benches upon which the dead were 
laid . The roof is formed of blocks of stone so placed that 
each one projects beyond the other until they meet at the 
top. The projecting ends are sawn off, and the effect is 
that of a roughly made vault. 

[In two of the other rooms of the building are careful 
reproductions of the paintings in the tombs of Sette- 
cammini at Poggio Roccolo, near to Orvieto, which may be 
studied with advantage both by those who intend to visit 
the tombs and those who cannot do so. They present us 
with a realistic and vivid picture of some of the customs, 
habits, and costumes of this great race of people.} 



ETRUSCAN ORVIETO 309 

Against the wall a number of stone cippi used to mark 
the place of sepulchres and to show that the earth was 
sacred, also some stone lintels with inscriptions. 

A large head of a warrior in a helmet, with the inscrip- 
tion, Lars Cupores Arantio, Above is a fine relief of a 
warrior in archaic style. 

Turning the corner, on the wall is a terra-cotta figure of 
Apollo between two seated figures, from the tympanum of 
the Temple of Belvidere ; the figures have been painted. 

Opposite to the entrance are three sarcophagi. The one 
to the l. is Roman, note the fine griffin on the end ; the 
other two are Christian. 

On the wall are several mediaeval carved panels. One 
is a fine piece of Italo-Byzantine workmanship. Pea- 
cocks and other birds feeding upon grapes are symbolical 
images of the spiritual life of the immortal soul. The slab 
is said to date from the eighth century ; it formed part of 
an altar screen in the Monastery of La Badia, outside of 
the town. A large unfinished stone mill of Etruscan times. 
Various fragments of mediaeval capitals. Casts from the 
detailed ornaments on the pinnacles of the Duomo. 

In the middle of the room is a fine Romanesque capital. 
Against the wall near the entrance is a holy water basin, 
attributed to Desiderio da Settignano (1428-1463). The 
outside of the basin is carved with a rich design of leaves, 
and in the inside are fish and crabs in high relief. 

First Floor. This part of the museum is reached by a 
massive staircase. The great hall contains both Etruscan 
and mediaeval antiquities. 

Begin with the cases in the centre of the room. 

Case VII. ; nearest to the door, has specimens of the black 
Etruscan pottery called Bucchero. The black colour was 
obtained by baking the clay in a covered kiln and sub- 
jecting it to a thick black smoke. The earliest examples 
on the upper shelf are rude in form and of a dull greyish 
colour ; they probably date from the seventh century B.C. 
Gradually the forms became more regular and the colour 
darker and more lustrous. Many of the designs seem 



3io ORVIETO 

to have been borrowed from Eastern nations. Veiled 
women's heads, with the hair in rigid lines, are supposed 
to signify the dwellers in the underworld. They occur in 
connection with various Dionysiac emblems, such as 
grapes, panthers, and goats. Many of the designs upon 
the Bucchero relate to Dionysos. 

We know that in Roman times Bacchus was most re- 
nowned in places, such as Orvieto, where the light volcanic 
soil was especially adapted to the cultivation of the vine. 
It is possible, therefore, that there may have been a special 
cult of the deity in this district in Etruscan times. 

Upon the Bucchero ware, and upon the pottery of an 
early date generally, the symbols relating to Dionysos are 
those of a primitive people, worshippers of the forces of 
nature. He is conceived of as an earth -god, and an em- 
bodiment of reproductive force, to be expressed not in 
human form, but by the trunk of a vine, or by some other 
rude emblem of fertility. 

The symbols of this god which appear upon the Bucchero 
ware in this museum are all associated with the life of the. 
field and the forest. Such are the panthers and lions, 
beasts of the forest ; the goats and rams, emblems of the 
fertile fields ; the scrolls of vine leaves, and clusters of 
fruit, and the ever-green ivy. 

Case I. has other specimens of Bucchero. 

Case III. has several bronze sacrificial vessels, used for 
pouring the libation over the victim's head, a gridiron for 
cooking, fire-dogs, and a large basin. On a shelf, some wine 
vases of fantastic shape, in Bucchero. One has the head 
of Dionysos bearded, and ends in a ram's head. Another 
in the shape of a leg, probably refers to the miraculous 
second birth of Dionysos from the thigh of Zeus. 

Case IV. On the lowest shelf a number of pots and 
small objects found in a child's tomb. A number of 
drinking-cups, with black figures on a red ground. 
Case B, in front, has some recent discoveries, including 
vases of an early type, with geometrical designs such as are 
to be found upon the pottery of primitive races. 



ETRUSCAN ORVIETO 311 

Case V. On the lowest shelf : painted vases. Many of 
these found in the Etruscan tombs were probably im- 
ported from Greece. Those made in imitation in Etruria 
can be recognised by the introduction of the Etruscan 
infernal spirits, demons, and furies. On the upper shelves : 
Bucchero ware. Note another drinking-cup in the 
shape of a bent leg. On the top shelf : vases with raised 
figures. 

Case VI. Vases with black designs on a red ground. 
A large amphora represents the marriage of Thetis and 
Peleus : the daughter stands in front of her father and 
the bridegroom approaches. Farther round, the bride 
and the bridegroom are seated in a chariot drawn by 
horses, and preceded by Dionysos and Hermes. There 
are also a number of small terra-cotta figures, glass bottles, 
etc. 

Case IX. A small bronze urn for a child, in the shape of 
an ark. Also jewellery, beads, and the remains of an iron 
sword. 

Case X. Vase of antique date and archaic Greek style. 
No. 1002 has Hercules fighting with the Amazons. On 
the reverse Dionysos blessed by Zeus. No. 1007, the 
marriage procession of Thetis and Peleus. Several drink- 
ing-cups, many with large eyes painted upon them, to- 
gether with grapes and figures of satyrs and nymphs. It 
has been suggested that these cups were presents given by 
the bridegroom to the bride, and the eyes alluded to the 
unveiling of the bride. 

Cases XL and XII. contain a few more vases, also a 
number of tension weights for looms. There is also the 
cast from a fine Greek head in the Baracco Museum in 
Rome. 

The Mediaeval Collection in the same hall has several 
interesting pieces of sculpture. Begin with the wall of 
entrance, turning to the r. as you enter. 

A fragment of fresco with Madonna and Child, Joachim 
and Anna. A piece of intarsia from the choir of the 



3 i2 ORVIETO 

Duomo, of the fourteenth century. A number of pieces 
of the old choir stalls from the Duomo, and a large chorale 
with the twelve Apostles. These are the work of Tura 
delV Ammanato of Siena, and of Giovanni Tatini, and are 
dated 1333. 

Above, on the wall, an angel, by Giovanni delta Robbia, 
from the Monastery of del Gesu. The colours have be- 
come almost iridescent in lustre. 

Along the walls of the room are a number of large 
marble statues of the Apostles and some saints, by sculp- 
tors of the sixteenth century. S. Sebastian is the work of 
Lo Scalza, and S. Matthew is attributed to Giovanni da 
Bologna. For the most part they are tasteless productions, 
and have been wisely removed to the museum from the 
nave of the Duomo. 

Between the second and third windows to the r. are a 
number of panels, for the most part in the rude native 
manner following Byzantine tradition. 

No. 38. A Crucifixion, attributed to Margaritone of 
Arezzo (1236-1313 ?), represents a painfully contorted 
figure. 

No. 16. A small easel picture of the Crucifixion, by 
Spinello Aretino (1333 ?-i4io), with a gilt back- 
ground. 

No. 59. By Simone Martini #(128 5-1 344), a Madonna 
and Child under a trefoil arch. Above Mary's head are the 
symbols of the Alpha and Omega, and on either side are 
angels with sceptres and orbs inscribed " Troni" 

No. 64, by Simone Martini. This picture, known as the 
" Trasimundo Madonna," was painted for Trasimundo 
Monaldeschi, the Bishop of Savona, who is represented 
kneeling at the l. corner of the picture. The four saints 
are S. Dominic and the Magdalene, in the upper com- 
partments ; S. Paul and S. Peter below. 

No. 40. A small picture by a follower of Giotto. Ma- 
donna is seated in the centre with the Child ; on the l., S. 
Agnes, and S. Paul ; on the r., a woman saint with a blazing 
vase, and S. Peter. 



ETRUSCAN ORVIETO 313 

A detached fresco of S. Sebastian, lately attributed to 
Genga. 

On the wall notice also a design for a font, made by 
Michael Angelo, whilst visiting Signorelli here. 

At the end of the hall, coats-of-arms of the various arts 
of Orvieto. 

A small marble relief of the fifteenth century, Andro- 
meda. Madonna and Child, by Guglielmo d'Agnello. 
Large seated figure of Christ, in wood, by Niccolo Nuti of 
Siena. 

On the wall are designs for the facade by Maitani and 
Federighi. 

Small Madonna and Child, by Romanino of Brescia. 

Against the window wall, a crucifix in bronze, by Bernini. 

Fine pieces of leather wall hangings of the fourteenth, 
fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries. Such hangings as these 
were largely used in the decoration of Orvietan palaces. 

The bronze top of a candelabrum, formed by four little 
statuettes of the Doctors of the Church. 

In the window, two headless angels with censers, by 
Arnolfo del Cambio. 

A small picture by Luca Signorelli (1441-1523), painted 
upon terra-cotta, representing his own portrait and that 
of Niccolo Franceschi, the camerlingo of the Duomo, and 
dated 1504. 

A picture of the Magdalene, by Luca Signorelli, a large 
heavy figure, and without charm of colour. Beside this is 
a heavily over-painted panel of the school of Giotto, repre- 
senting the Virgin and Child with SS. Savino and Gio- 
venale. The picture comes from the old Church of S. 
Giovenale. 

A highly ornamental niche of 1485, ascribed to Antonio 
da Viterbo. 

On the entrance wall are several detached frescoes from 
churches in the city. 

A magnificent collection of vestments is placed in the 
cases in the middle of the hall. One of these cases con- 
tains a number of mitres, in connection with which it is 



314 ORVIETO 

told that the Bishop of Orvieto was entitled to wear five 
mitres, significant of the five dioceses over which he pre- 
sided. 

In the centre of the hall are several statues. 

Two wooden figures of the Angel Gabriel and of the 
Virgin were at one time attributed to Fried rich of Frei- 
burg, but are now ascribed to the Sienese school of the 
fourteenth century. Traces of colour show that the figures 
were once painted in a realistic manner. 

With these may be compared the Annunciation, in 
marble, by Francesco Mosca (1605). The fourteenth- 
century angel is a model of restrained gravity ; the 
gesture is authoritative yet mild. There is no active 
motion, but no sense of passive stiffness. The Madonna 
is not so graceful, the figure and expression are insensitive. 

Mosca's angel, on the other hand, appears theatrical and 
extravagant, an absurd attempt is made to represent the 
figure in flight. Madonna ungracefully draped, turns away 
with a gesture as though warding off a blow, and her ex- 
pression is resentful. The whole work is a display of un- 
felt passion, the appetite for beauty lost in insincerity and 
extravagance. 

A small marble statue of Madonna and Child, by Nino 
Pisano, resembles the work of the grandfather Niccolo, 
rather than that of the father Giovanni. It is a pleasant 
figure with a simple and naive expression, but it is some- 
what spoiled by the trifling device of making the arms of 
the Virgin, and the Child's head, movable. 

The most notable object in the centre of the hall is, per- 
haps, the beautiful reliquary made to contain the head of 
S. Savino. It was made by Ugolino da Maestro Vieri and 
Vivo da Siena (working in 1337). This graceful and 
beautiful piece of goldsmith's work was done by the artists 
as a proof of their ability to undertake the making of the 
reliquary for the Corporale in the Duomo. 

In Case XIII. is a graceful censer attributed to 
Benvenuto Cellini (1 500-1 571), and a silver gilt pastoral 
which belonged to Cardinal Simoncelli. Notice also, 



ETRUSCAN 0RV1ET0 315 

in Case XIV., a quaint little casket of the fourteenth 

century, of painted wood, interesting on account of the 
subjects of a romantic and chivalrous character. On the 
side facing the window is a Fountain of Love, in the centre 
of the world, " // MonAo" and around the fountain are 
gathered knights and ladies. On the opposite side of the 
casket are a number of kings with their names inscribed, 
amongst which can be distinguished the kings of Portugal, 
Aragon, France, Sicily, England. 

There are also a number of crosses and crucifixes, and a 
small bronze plaque of a Boar Hunt, by Benvenuto 
Cellini. 

The Faina Collection 

A fine Etruscan collection derived from the excavations 
made in the neighbourhood of Orvieto and at Chiusi is to 
be seen in the Palazzo Faina (opposite to the Duomo), open 
to visitors through the courtesy of the owner, Conte Faina. 

In the First Hall: 

Ranged along the floor are twelve terra-cotta cinerary 
chests from the neighbourhood of Chiusi, with sculptured 
figures upon the lids and reliefs upon the sides of the 
chests. The sculptures upon the lids are realistic portraits 
of the dead represented in the midst of the enjoyment of 
life, eating, drinking, talking, or playing with their orna- 
ments. The subjects of the reliefs below are in sharp con- 
trast with the serenely contented men and women on the 
lids. They illustrate, as a rule, some tragic scene of com- 
bat, slaughter, murder, or sacrifice. The fate of mortals is 
shown to be in the hands of the gods, who make use of 
death as a punishment for impiety or presumption. 

No. 3 has a sleeping figure upon the lid, and on the side 
of the chest a drinking-vessel, or Kantharos, sacred to 
Dionysos ; on either side of it is a dolphin. 

No. 4 has on the lid the figure of a beautiful woman rest- 
ing gracefully upon her left elbow, which is supported by a 
pillow. The relief upon the chest represents a marine 
deity. Figures of marine deities are common among the 



316 ORVIETO 

Etruscans, whose wealth depended greatly upon their 
maritime commerce. These figures do not correspond 
closely with any of the creations of Greek mythology. 
They generally appear in combat with men, or threatening 
them with disaster, and seem to imply the terrors and 
dangers which await those who go down to the sea in ships. 

No, 12. The recumbent statue of a man has a saucer- 
shaped bowl in his hand, resembling the Roman " Patera.' 9 
In place of a handle this drinking-vessel has a hollowmised 
boss in the centre, into which the fingers could be inserted. 
The relief on the chest represents two warriors attacked by 
a half -clothed figure armed with a plough. This may repre- 
sent the mysterious ploughman who appeared suddenly in 
the battle of Marathon and assisted the Greeks by killing 
many of the barbarians with his implement. 

Several of the bas-reliefs on the smaller urns with sleep- 
ing figures upon the lids hav.e the same subject. They are 
identical, and to all appearance have been cast from the 
same mould. Chests of this kind were probably kept in 
stock, and the lids with portraits of the dead were done on 
commission. 

The bas-relief of No. 11 represents the fratricidal combat 
between Eteokles and Polyneikes, the joint rulers of 
Thebes. This relief is a good example of the Etruscan 
treatment of a Greek theme. The dire result of the con- 
flict, and the certain end in store for the brothers, is 
signified by the introduction of a Fury, or Lasa, the mes- 
senger of death, who stretches her arms towards the un- 
happy pair. 

No. 14 has a touching and simple scene of farewell be- 
tween the living and the dead. Two persons stand before 
a door with their hands clasped, and beside each one is a 
Fury holding a torch. 

On the floor to the r. of the entrance are a number of 
the strange cinerary vases called " canopi," with lids in 
the shape of human heads. They are found most com- 
monly in the neighbourhood of Chiusi, and date from the 
eighth and seventh centuries B.C. They are interesting 



ETRUSCAN ORVIETO 317 

links in the history of the development of the art of sculp- 
ture in the round, among the Etruscans. It is evident that 
sincere efforts were made to secure a likeness in the rudely 
shaped head ; in order to increase the human resemblance, 
these canopi are often placed upon a seat of bronze or 
stone, and roughly formed arms ornamented with rings and 
bracelets are attached by means of pegs to the sides of the 
vase. 

The next image shows a still further advance in the 
power of representation. Here we have the roughly 
blocked-out figure of a man. The head is movable, and 
the hollow body was used as a receptacle for the ashes. 
The gradual development of sculpture from the rude 
human-headed vase to the full-sized recumbent figure 
upon the lid of the sarcophagus or chest is fully illustrated 
in the museum of Chiusi. On the shelves against the walls 
are a number of pieces of black Bucchero ware, some of 
which, noticeable for the high polish and lustrous finish, 
came from Castel Giorgio, two miles from Orvieto on the 
Viterbo road. 

. Two shallow bowls or " Patera " should be noticed, Nos. 
495 and 439. On the shelf to the r. of the entrance are 
a number of terra-cotta masks. Four are of women's 
faces of a somewhat idealised type, they may represent the 
attendant invisible spirits, genii or furies, or they may be 
personifications of Death. 

Nos. 380 and 381 are two masks of hideous demons with 
large noses, long tusks, and horns on their heads. They 
can be easily identified from the painted vases as the 
Etruscan Charun, the messenger of Death, who strikes 
down his victims with his mallet. 

On these shelves there are also a number of small objects 
of various forms and different materials, votive offerings 
to the gods who have the destiny of mortals in their keep- 
ing. These rudely formed images of bulls, deer, pigs, 
mothers suckling their babes, apples, plums, etc., were 
offered to the powers who presided over the reproductive 
forces of life. The small terra-cotta figures of men on 



318 ORVIETO 

horseback, and of chariots drawn by horses, which look so 
like cheap playthings, represented the mysterious journey 
of the soul to the underworld. 

Several of the drinking-cups have illustrations of the rites 
connected with the Dionysiac worship, and the shelves 
also contain some phallic emblems, which were probably 
worn as amulets. 

Room II. has a collection of consular and imperial 
coins. 

Room III. contains in cases many articles in bronze, 
such as candelabra, flesh-hooks for taking up the burnt 
offering in the sacrifices, helmets, axe-heads, amulets, 
and votive offerings in the form of idols. 

Case D has a miscellaneous collection of vases, strigils, 
bracelets, rings, pins, and mirrors. These mirrors are 
polished on one side for reflection, and engraved for orna- 
ment upon the other. It is significant of the changes which 
took place in the habits, *and probably in the character, of 
the race, that no mirrors have been found in tombs earlier 
than the third century B.C., and that after that period they 
became very abundant. In a cave tomb near Orvieto, 
which had been used as a place of burial from 240 to 217 
B.C., there were found no less than eleven mirrors. The 
subjects upon them are as a rule mythological, but they 
never represent scenes of combat or death, and the attend- 
ant spirits who appear are of a different order from the 
hideous demons introduced in the sepulchral paintings and 
sculptures. The favourite deities figured on the mirror 
are Turan (or Venus), Phupluns (or Bacchus), Adonis, and 
Apollo, and the scenes chosen relate, as a rule, to the 
meeting of lovers, the triumph of beauty, and the exploits 
of heroes. 

Case G contains a number of flints in the shape of spears, 
arrows, and the like, found near Perugia and Orvieto. It 
is supposed that the Etruscans attached a superstitious 
value to these stones, and wore them as amulets. 

On the second and third shelves are necklaces, combs, 
and small glass bottles probably of foreign workmanship, 



ETRUSCAN ORVIETO 319 

imported into Etruria by the Phoenicians. In the case in 
the centre of the room are a number of gold ornaments 
dating from the fourth century B.C. 

Room IV. has a number of vases chiefly in the shape of a 
drinking-cup called by the Greeks Kyltx, in archaic style 
with black designs upon a red ground. This style belongs 
to the fifth and sixth centuries B.C. A large proportion of 
the examples were probably imported from Greece. 

Room V. A good collection of Bucchero ware. 

Painted Vases, The large majority of these vases are 
probably Greek importations, but several are obviously of 
Etruscan workmanship from the fashion in which grotesque 
and realistic details are added to the usual Hellenic con- 
ceptions of the scene. 

Three of the vases, Nos. 19, 20, 21, on the shelf to the 
l. of the entrance, are interesting illustrations of the 
Etruscan representations of the after-life of the spirit. 
The technical qualities of the vases are mediocre, and the 
style of the design poor. They are mounted upon a 
revolving stand, so that the whole of the figures can be 
inspected. 

No. 19. Here is represented the place of the Shades, 
the region of darkness and terror, guarded by the three- 
headed Cerberus with a serpent tail. The unhappy victim 
of death, represented as an old man, stands between 
two brutal figures, one of whom is armed with a 
hammer, while two great serpents raise their heads close 
beside him. Turning the vase, we see the chariot of the 
King and Queen of Hades, drawn by two dragons, and this 
in turn is followed by a Fury, or some personification of 
death, a naked, winged woman holding a scroll with the 
word, " Vanth," death. 

No. 21 is almost identical with No. 19. 

No. 20 represents a funeral car drawn by two mules, 
bearing the body to the sepulchre. This is followed by a 
scene from the underworld to which the spirit of the dead 
has migrated. The King of Hades appears in his chariot, 
preceded by a figure of Charun, and followed by a personi- 



$2o 0RV1ET0 

fication of death holding a closed book, significant of the 
life that has ended. 

The Piazza del Duomo 

In the Piazza del Duomo we have a group of four im- 
portant buildings, the outcome of the religious enthusiasm 
of the citizens, and of the relations maintained by the 
town with the papal see. 

The oldest building is probably the Bishop's Palace, 
behind the Cathedral, on the r. It is said to have been 
founded in 977, and was certainly enlarged and restored 
by Adrian IV. in n 50. Almost all traces, however, of the 
mediaeval building have been removed by the restorations 
made in the sixteenth century. There are still some 
pointed windows carved with chequers on the face, as at 
the Palazzo del Popolo and at the Abbadia outside of the 
town. 

Adjoining, and nearer to the piazza, is the Palace of the 
Popes, commonly called the Palazzo Soliano (the Museo 
Civico). 

It was built in 1297 by order of Boniface VIII. for the re- 
ception of the pontifical ambassadors, and was given by the 
Commune to the Opera del Duomo in 1534. 

Close beside it is the Hospital established for the poor in 
1 197 by a priest ; and facing the Duomo stands an impos- 
ing building, the Palace of the Opera del Duomo, built in 

I359 \ 
It is astonishing to find so many splendid erections in a 

small hill city, but both municipal and private palaces sink 
into insignificance beside the magnitude of the work of the 
Duomo. This cathedral church owes its existence to an 
outburst of popular piety and enthusiasm aroused by the 
miracle of Bolsena. The first stone was laid by Nicholas IV. 
in 1290, and the citizens, imposing a tax upon them- 
selves to defray the cost, joined with the dwellers in the 
suburbs and surrounding districts in long-continued efforts 
to bring the great work to completion. 



TEE DUOMO 321 



THE DUOMO 

THE DATE AND STYLE OF THE BUILDING 

[The Duomo of Orvieto is one of the most elaborate 
examples of that particular kind of pointed architecture 
which found favour for a comparatively short time south 
of the Alps. This style had been introduced into Italy in 
the last quarter of the twelfth century. Throughout the 
thirteenth century there was a tendency to naturalise 
many of the ideas that were moving architects and sculp- 
tors north of the Alps. The Italian architect employed 
the northern forms without sympathising fully in the 
northern spirit. In this case, however, the design is clear 
and decisive so far as the facade is concerned. The per- 
pendicular tendency is maintained, the buttresses are not 
overloaded with ornament, and they control the hori- 
zontal lines successfully. The gables are steep, the doors 
are differentiated according to their importance, and there 
is an air of well defined and clearly expressed purpose. 
To all this the Southern atmosphere is added, in the rich 
variety of colour and elaborate handiwork : shafts and 
mouldings are cut into spirals filled with mosaic, or with 
delicately carved designs of leaves and fruit, cornices are 
carved, gables and pinnacles are crocketed, and yet in 
spite of a certain profusion in detail there is reserve and 
dignity in the broader aspect of the building. 

Most of the mosaics are modern restorations ; but at a 
sufficient distance, where the heavy forms and puerile 
attitudes are not distinguishable, the colour of these 
pictures has a fine effect. No monument in Italy can 
show a more lovely blending of marble shading off into 
delicate yellows and pinks than those which surround the 
great doorway and form a setting for the mosaics. 

The piers which flank the western doors are covered 
with reliefs which are among the most interesting ex- 
amples of thiVJdnd of sculpture in Italy. It is character- 



322 ORVIETO 

is tic that the work should be in relief, at a short distance 
from the building it has only the appearance of a richly 
embossed surface. The porches at Chartres remind us 
that the sculptors north of the Alps knew better how to 
make their work effective. 

It has usually been assumed that Lorenzo Maitani of 
Siena was the first architect of the Duomo ; but if, as is 
supposed, Maitani was born in 1275, and the building was 
begun in 1290, we must look elsewhere. There is no direct 
evidence, and we must be content to know that the design 
for Orvieto followed the lines of the great Tuscan archi- 
tects of the time, and that certainly in 1310, if not before, 
Lorenzo Maitani became architect. 

In 1293 there is a record of the principal men who were 
connected with the work. They were Ramo di Paganello 
of Siena ; Fra Guglielmo, a pupil of Niccolo Pisano ; and 
Giacomo di Cosma Romana (of the Cosmati family). Fra 
Bevignate, who built the aqueduct at Perugia, was also 
there and he was Capo Operaio for some time before 1300. 

At the time of the settlement of Maitani in 1310, it is 
supposed that the facade was still unbuilt, and it is thought 
that he altered the plan, so that the two sides were carried 
up higher, and were finished off with gables in the same 
way as the central member of the design. 

In 1 32 1 Maitani set up a factory for making material for 
the mosaics, and there are frequent entries in the accounts 
for glass from Venice. Marble was brought from Rome, 
from Carrara, and from Monte Specchio, near Siena, and 
alabaster was obtained at Montalcino. 

When Lorenzo Maitani died in 1330, he was succeeded 
by his son Niccolo, who was assisted by his brother Vitale 
and a certain Meo of Orvieto. Andrea Pisano was ap- 
pointed Capo Maestro in 1347. He was succeeded by his 
son, Nino, who began to build the Chapel of the Corporale 
in 1350 — working on foundations that had been laid in the 
time of Maitani. 

The round window of the facade is mentioned as early as 
1354. It was carried on under Andrea Orcagna, who be- 



THE DUOMO 323 

came Capo Maestro in 1359. It was not finished until 
twenty years later. 

In 1397 money was left to build the Capella Nuovo or 
Capella di S. Brizio. The work was begun in 1408 and 
finished in 141 9. 

In 145 1 the design of the upper part of the facade was 
altered by Antonio Federighi. The row of niches above 
the circular window was added, thus raising the height of 
the central part of the building. 

The statues for the niches round the circular window 
were not executed until long after. Moschino (d. 1578), 
Ippolito Scalza (working 1579), Raffaello da Montelupo, 
and others, were concerned in the sculpture between the 
years 1555 and 1578.] 

On the northern side of the church the doorways are 
designed in a rich style, but with less variety of material. 
The side door to the south has a bronze relief on the lintel 
of Christ and the Apostles. 

The Facade 

[The building of the Duomo was due to a desire to com- 
memorate the miracle of Bolsena. In it the Church saw a 
divine recognition of the sacrifice of the Mass. By this 
manifestation, the healing power of the Passion was con- 
firmed to every man in the daily sacrament of the altar. 
The priest whose doubt was set at rest at Bolsena was only 
one among many who in the thirteenth century hesitated 
to accept the teaching of the Church, and the desire was 
natural that the miracle worked for his benefit should be 
made known to the world. 

The general design of the church is therefore a testimony 
to the mystery of the Incarnation and its embodiment in 
the sacrament of the Eucharist. The dedication of the 
church was in the name of the Virgin Mary. It is in the 
teaching of S. Bernard, the spiritual leader of the twelfth 
century, that we realise the relation which the Virgin had to 
the religious feeling of the time. Madonna was the royal 



3 2 4 ORVIETO 

way by which men could ascend to Christ, as by it He 
descended to mankind. She was the mediatrix and advo- 
cate between Christ and man. It was her abundant 
charity that concealed the multitude of men's sins. 

As the Incarnation is the central idea of the building, 
we find its realisation in the Divine Child seated on His 
mother's knee, placed in the most conspicuous point over 
the central doorway on the western facade. On the pin- 
nacle above this doorway there is the Paschal Lamb, the 
sacrifice of the Passover being a type of the sacrifice of 
Christ. In the mosaics we have the detail of the life of 
the Virgin Mary. Around the Rose window are gathered 
the prophets, apostles, and doctors of the Church militant. 
And on the four piers about the western doors there is a 
history of the world from the time in which all things 
came forth from God until they return to their justification 
infHim. 

The sculpture and the mosaic over the entire facade may 
be regarded as a mirror of the universe in which man may 
perceive the true nature of his being, and the whence and 
the whither of his existence. 

The mosaics on the upper part of the facade depict the 
life of the Virgin. The picture over the right-hand western 
door represents the Nativity of Madonna. The angel 
appears to Joachim and to Anna, and at the sides there 
stand the prophets Nahum and Isaiah, with legends suffi- 
ciently preserved to enable us to identify their words. The 
extract from the prophecy of Nahum is contained in iii. 17, 
" When the sun is arisen the enemies of God flee away like 
locusts." The extract from Isaiah is in ix. 2, " The people 
that walked in darkness have seen a great light." 

In the right-hand gable there is the " Presentation of the 
Virgin in the Temple." In the corresponding gable to the 
left is the " Sposalizio," and over the left-hand door is the 
<c Baptism of Christ," with the " Annunciation " immedi- 
ately above it. Over the central doorway is the Assumption 
of Madonna, and in the central gable " the Coronation." 

The wheel window has for its centre, Christ with a cruci- 




Photograph : Alinari 

THE FACADE OF THE CATHEDRAL, SIENA 
Compare with the facade of the Cathedral at Orvieto 



THE DUOMO 325 

form nimbus, the niches at the side are occupied by twelve 
Prophets, and in the niches above the window are twelve 
Apostles. In the four corners are the four Doctors of the 
Latin Church ; SS. Gregory and Jerome in the upper 
corners and SS. Ambrose and Augustine below. On the 
four piers above the doorways are the four symbols of the 
Evangelists. It is a realisation of the saying of S. Paul, 
" And he gave some Apostles, and some Prophets, and 
some Evangelists, and some pastors and teachers . . . 
that we henceforth be no more children . . . but that 
speaking the truth in love we may grow up unto Him in 
all things, which is the head, even Christ."] 

The Sculpture on the Piers 

[Authorship and date of the bas-reliefs. There is no direct 
evidence as to the authorship or date of these sculptures. 
There is a general agreement that they are due to followers 
of the school founded by Niccolo Pisano (1206 ?-i28o), 
and continued under changing influences by Giovanni 
Pisano (d. 1320) and Andrea Pisano (died after 1349) ; but 
there is a difference of opinion as to whether the sculptors 
belonged to the company who had worked on the Duomo 
of Siena, or whether they were Florentines. The date is 
equally uncertain. Some authorities place the work as 
early as 1310, others believe that part of it is due to the 
time of Andrea Orcagna, who was Capo Maestro in 1359- 
1360. It is evident that several hands have been at work, 
and many years were probably spent upon it. In general 
effect there is more likeness to works of the Florentine 
school than to any known Sienese sculpture. The style 
suggests a date later than that of the panels on the Cam- 
panile at Florence. So far as such uncertain indications 
go, it may perhaps be tentatively accepted that the work 
was done about the middle of the fourteenth century, and 
under the influence of Andrea Pisano, Capo Maestro (1347- 
1349), and Andrea Orcagna, Capo Maestro (1359-1360). 

These reliefs take their place with the Fountain at 



326 ORVIETO 

Perugia (1280), the reliefs on the Campanile at Florence 
(after 1334), and the relief on the tabernacle of Or San 
Michele (circa 1360) as among the best of all Italian 
sculptures. It is hardly an exaggeration to say that 
these monuments are the finest works executed south of 
the Alps since the time of the great Greek masters. 

It will be noticed that all the monuments just named 
(with some exception on the Fountain at Perugia) consist 
of works in more or less low-relief. This distinguishes 
them from the sculpture of French artists who were accus- 
tomed to work in the round. 

In the Orvietan reliefs a certain over-graciousness takes 
the place of the strong imaginative quality of northern 
work. The figure of Christ fails in impressiveness, there 
is no fit conception of the creative power in act. So filled 
is the artist with the grace and beauty of this world that he 
fails to grasp the wider ideal ; he is satisfied to represent 
the mystery of creation in terms of real life. If, on the one 
hand, Byzantine art disregards human feeling to concern 
itself mainly with the abstract and general, it is equally 
true that this Pisan-Florentine art loses the power of 
expressing the supernatural in its search after the emotions 
of ordinary humanity. We feel the want of ability to 
imagine an existence not limited by human conditions. 
We are not inspired with awe by a presence aloof from and 
beyond our own. Nor is the expression of the deeper 
passions of our nature successfully mastered. Such 
scenes as the Massacre of the Innocents and the Despair 
of the Damned are dealt with conventionally. 

But when this is said there is little left to criticise. It 
would be hard to find anything more graceful and pictur- 
esque than the lower scenes on the first pier. There is 
complete command over form, either in rest or motion. 
We may notice, for instance, the subtle discrimination 
between the unanimated form of Adam and his form when 
lying asleep, while the graceful rendering of the angels has 
just that quality of distinction and reserve which dis- 
tinguishes it from the works of the fifteenth -century 



THE DUOMO 327 

Renaissance. There is a variety of style even among these 
lower panels. Adam and Eve in the Garden, in Nos. 7 
and 8 (Plan XIX. ), show a tendency to shortness of 
body, largeness of head, and heaviness of feature, which 
is not found in the Creation series, No. 3, 4, and 5 
(Plan XIX.). 

The use of sculpture in bas-relief has allowed full play 
to the artist's sense for the beauty of landscape and the 
forms of vegetation, which add so great a charm to the 
design. 

The second pier is considered the least interesting as 
a work of art. There is an easy command of method, there 
is freedom of pose and a sufficient sense of action, but there 
is a certain heaviness and want of distinction and a lack of 
vigour and feeling. The design at the foot of the pier where 
the prophets and rulers are seen, may be compared with 
the similar part of the third pier. 

In the latter there is far more dramatic force, those who 
hold their scrolls are instinct with life, the character of the 
figures is more virile and of a higher type, the sleeping 
patriarch is more dignified. The love of landscape breaks 
out again in the third pier, as it does on the first ; the scene 
is set among trees, each one of which is a study, there are 
olives and figs and many oaks such as those that still add 
a charm to the hills and valleys of Central Italy. The 
sculpture of the life of Christ is of fine quality. We are 
struck at once by the simplicity and the dramatic feeling 
of most of the scenes. The Annunciation, it is true, is 
somewhat artificial, but of any such fault the Visitation is 
entirely clear. There is a true balance between human 
feeling and the sense of the divine mystery which brings 
two women together. The Nativity adds a certain human 
grace and tenderness, making it as a whole one of the most 
beautiful representations in Italian art. The Adoration of 
the Magi is only second in merit to the Nativity. It suffers 
from overcrowding and it verges on the narrative style of 
treatment, and yet it is a fine work, worthy of the best 
traditions of a great school. The sculpture on the fourth 



328 ORVIETO 

pier is less remarkable than the work on the first and third 
piers.] 

The Subject of the designs on the piers is the drama of 
human salvation treated in an elaborate system of type 
and antitype. 

Each design is pictured in the form of a tree, and the 
leading idea is the opposition of the expectation of the 
Prophets, with the realisation of the Gospel. 

The First Pier 
(Plan XIX., p. 331) 

The ivy branches in which the subjects are set symbolise 
everlasting life. They are typical of the idea that those 
who die in Christ never cease to live. 

Begin with the lower panels. We are at once struck with 
the fact that the subject is not historically treated. It is 
not a sculptured version of the early chapters of Genesis ; 
it is an attempt to set forth the spiritual significance of 
the facts, and to suggest the relationship between the 
Creator and humanity. The work of the first four days 
appear in its results only, nor is the Rest of the seventh 
day represented. It is only the creation of the fifth and 
sixth days, when fowls, fishes, cattle, creeping things, and 
man were made, that is shown to us in operation. 

The work of creation in the first panel is effected by the 
Trinity, represented by the Hand of God, by the figure of 
Christ, and by the Dove of the Holy Spirit. The mani- 
festation of power by means of the Hand, gives existence ; 
the Wisdom of the Word gives the rational nature by 
which man becomes deserving of praise and blame ; the 
Love of the Holy Spirit gives holiness, by which man is 
capable of receiving the righteousness of God. 

The account of Creation in Genesis was regarded as a 
type of the way of God with man. The Spirit that moved 
on the face of the waters was significant of that divine 
power which substituted for the disorder of human sinful- 
ness the divine order. The herb-yielding seed is the soul 




Photograph: Alinari 



CREATION 



(Probably by Andrea Pisano after the design of Giotto. 
Campanile, Florence. 

Compare with the Creation Scenes on the first pier of the facade, Orvieto 



THE DUOMO 329 

zealous to do good works. The lights which are set in the 
firmament signify the gifts of the Spirit. Man was created 
in the image of God, which signifies that he should be able 
to know. He was created in the likeness of God so that he 
might love. 

Thus the creation of temporal things became a mirror, 
in which man saw reflected the conditions of his spiritual 
life. 

No. 1 on the Plan XIX. (p. 331) represents the work of 
the fifth day. There is the firmament above, in which are 
the sun, moon, and stars. Below are the waters which 
have been gathered together, there is also the dry land and 
there are fruit-bearing trees. Fishes and birds have just 
come into existence as manifestations of the creative power 
of the Trinity, represented by the Hand, by Christ, and by 
the Dove. 

No. 2. Creation of Beasts and creeping things. 

No. 3. Creation of the body of man, in which the 
unanimated figure lies on the ground. 

No. 4. The still unanimated figure stands before Christ, 
who conveys the living spirit (Par. vii. 137, 144). 

No. 5. Adam lies asleep on the ground, while Christ 
bends over him and cuts the rib from his side. 

The sleep of Adam is a type of the sleep of Christ upon 
the Cross, and as from the side of the sleeping Adam came 
the woman Eve, so from the side of Christ came forth the 
Sacraments of the Church. 

No. 6. The final act of Creation is that in which Eve 
rises from the side of Adam. She is animated by the in- 
forming hand of Christ laid on her shoulder. We now pass 
from Creation to the state of mankind in the world. 

No. 7. Adam and Eve are placed in Paradise, and they 
are forbidden to eat of the tree of the knowledge of good 
and evil. In each of these scenes Christ is attended by 
two angels, and in this panel one of them seems to pray that 
man may be preserved from the coming temptation which 
the other indicates by a warning gesture. Adam and Eve 
stand under a fig-tree, and behind them is the fountain from 



330 ORVIETO 

which come the four rivers of Paradise. This is a figure of 
the source of grace which is spread over the earth even as 
the streams flow from the garden to the four quarters of 
the world. 

No. 8. Temptation and Fall. The Devil took the form 
of a serpent. He is twined round the stem of the fig-tree, 
and the fang of the reptile is thrust towards Eve as she gives 
the forbidden fruit to Adam. The newly created pair were 
not content to discern good and evil by commandment, 
they must learn by experience, and in their disobedience 
they became subject to death. Man lost the light of the in- 
visible and became absorbed in the visible. Salvation was 
only possible in so far as the inner sense which was thus 
lost could be restored . It is the history of this restoration 
which is set forth on the rest of the sculpture. It is com- 
pleted in the final vision of the fourth pier, where the 
blessed see God as He is. 

No. 9 represents the shame and confusion of Adam and 
Eve as they hide under the trees from the sight of God, who 
called Adam as He walked in the garden. In trying to 
represent the misery of the Fall the sculptor has lost the 
conception of the wider issues involved ; he shows us the 
personal degradation rather than the tragedy of the en- 
trance of disorder into the world. 

No. io. The Expulsion from Paradise. An angel lays 
his hand on the shoulder of Adam as a warning that they 
must leave the garden. Already there is a line of flame and 
a six-winged seraph with a drawn sword guarding against 
any return. 

No. ii. Adam hoeing and Eve spinning. This is the 
beginning of the work of restoration. It was provided 
that man should be rescued from some of the physical 
effects of the Fall by the labour of this present life. The 
necessity of the discipline of labour was thoroughly recog- 
nised in mediaeval society. In the rules of S. Basil and 
S. Benedict work was one of the primary duties, and the 
former specially provided that devotional exercises should 
be no excuse for avoiding the duty of labour. 



THE DUOMO 331 

Nos. 12 and 13. The Sacrifices of Cain and Abel and the 




Plan XIX. — First Pier, Duomo, Orvieto 

Death of Abel. These two sons of Adam were regarded as 
the founders of the two cities, the mystical Jerusalem and 



332 ORVIETO 

the mystical Babylon. Abel was the first-fruits of that 
Church which existed from the beginning of the world. 
Cain is a figure of the Jewish people, for as he was separ- 
ated by the mark set upon him, so the legal ordinances of 
their law separated the Jews from those who lived in the 
light of the Gospel. The sacrifice of Abel was the type of 
the Passion of Christ, and in death he was also a figure of 
Him. Cain's sacrifice failed for want of a right intention ; 
he is the type of the Scribes and Pharisees, who fulfilled 
their duties outwardly but within were full of wickedness. 
Abel and Cain are opposed as representing the two prin- 
ciples of order and disorder. 

Nos. 14, 15, 16 represent a child learning grammar, a 
man playing on bells, and a student of geometry. It is an 
epitome of the development of human energy. Grammar 
is the door through which the child passes in his first search 
after knowledge. Music stands for that principal of pro- 
portion and symmetry which enters into every relation, 
physical, mental, and spiritual. It was regarded as a type 
of the common bond by which all things are composed into 
one harmonious creation. Geometry was considered as 
being the study of immovable matter, and its significance 
consisted in its tendency to lead men to perceive continu- 
ous existence and the unchangeable essence that lies 
beyond. 

Grammar, music, and geometry epitomise, therefore, the 
arts by which man learned to satisfy his wants. Through 
these arts social life became possible, and so cities were 
built and kingdoms were established. The knowledge 
necessary for practical life led to the higher studies of 
philosophy, and these in their turn led to the searching out 
of divine things. That which connects this series of sculp- 
tures with the others is the hope that is held out to man- 
kind, even in the Fall and the expulsion from Paradise. 
Every detail of creation was a type of divine mercy. In 
the scene of the Temptation and Fall there is the fountain, 
the type of divine grace. In the Murder of Abel there is the 
type of the sacrifice of Christ. In the scenes of labour and 



THE DUOMO 333 

of the invention of the arts there is the beginning of the 
work of restoration. 

The Second Pier 

(Plan XX., p. 33*) 

The second pier has for its central idea the tree of the 
human ancestry of the Messiah springing from Jesse 
(No. 17). In the branches of the tree are described the visions 
of the Prophets in which they foresaw the coming of Christ. 
The following description includes only the panels which 
appear to carry on the main idea of the sculptures. There 
are at the sides subsidiary scenes, but these have not been 
identified. No evidence exists which warrants us in decid- 
ing what the various scenes on this pillar were intended to 
represent, nor are the subjects obvious. The following 
attributions must only be accepted as suggestions, and for 
these we are in many instances indebted to Mrs A. H. 
Smith and Miss Margaret Smith. 

\bove the figure of Jesse are six righteous Kings of the 
House of David (No. 18). The first king has a harp, and he 
may be identified as David ; the young king above is per- 
haps Solomon. Those above have been supposed to be Asa, 
Jehoshaphat, Hezekiah, and Josiah. Above these is 
Madonna (No. 19) and Christ (No. 20.) They both bear 
closed books, for " the words are closed up and sealed till 
the end of time " (Dan. xii. 9). 

No. 21. The skeleton of Adam in its coffin recalls the 
saying of S. Paul, " For since by man came death, by man 
also came the resurrection of the dead " (1 Cor. xv. 20.) 
The sculpture on this pier is the expression of the vision 
which the Hebrew prophets had of the coming of the Man 
who was to liberate humanity from the bondage of death. 

There are in the lower courses a number of figures, Nos. 
22 and 23. They are probably those of prophets and rulers 
of the people of the Jews. One of these, however, with 
covered feet and with a crown or garland on his head, has 
been identified as Virgil, who was supposed to have pro- 



334 ORVIETO 

phesied of Christ in quoting the vision of the Cumsean 

Sibyl. (See Panel 28.) 

Nos. 24 and 25. Balaam's Ass sees the angel and Balaam 
prophesies concerning the Star which shall come out of 
Jacob (Numb. xxiv. 17). 

No. 26. Gideon wrings the water out of the fleece ; the 
dry fleece also lies on the ground. God's choice of Mary 
when He desired to be incarnate was prefigured by the 
fleece of Gideon, which alone was wet ; so Mary alone of 
the many daughters of Israel was found worthy; The 
water wrung out of the fleece was a figure of the grace 
which comes by Christ, while the dry fleece signified the 
people of the Jews. 

No. 27. The Consecration of David by the prophet 
Samuel. This passing from the care of the sheepfolds to 
the ruling of men was a type of how the Gospel was offered 
to the Gentiles, when the Jews, the sheep of the flock ; 
would not hear it. Jesse, the father of David, holds up 
his hands in the attitude of prayer as if he had a vision of 
the descent of the Spirit on his son (1 Sam. xvi. 6-13). 

No. 28. This scene has been identified as representing 
the prophecy of the Cumsean Sibyl quoted by Virgil. An 
old man presents the Child to two women, who hold be- 
tween them a globe. The reference made by Virgil to the 
Sibylline verse runs as follows : " The last age of the 
Cumsean song comes, the great series of ages takes rise 
from the beginning. Now the virgin returns, now the 
kingdoms of Saturn return. Now a new lineage is sent 
down from heaven. Be favourable, pure Lucina, to the 
boy at his birth, through whom the iron age will first be 
brought to an end, and the golden age will arise over the 
whole world." 

No. 29. Christ in the act of blessing appears to a number 
of men and women who hold up their hands in adoration* 
It is probably a description of Isaiah ix. 2 : " The people 
that walked in darkness have seen a great light : they that 
dwell in the land of the shadow of death, upon them hath 
the light shined." (See Matt. iv> 12-16 and Ephes. v. 8.) 



THE DUOMO 335 

No. 30. This scene is probably a comment on Dan. ii. 34, 
in which the prophet sees a stone cut without hands. It 
became a great mountain and filled the whole earth, as by 
faith in Christ all the ends of the earth are filled. 

No. 31. This is a reference to Ezekiel xlvii. 1-13, in which 
waters issue from under the threshold of the house of the 
Lord. These waters make a great river going down into 
the desert and into the sea, healing its waters. Every- 
thing shall live whithersoever it comes, and on its banks 
shall grow every tree for meat, whose leaf shall not wither, 
neither shall the fruit thereof fail (see also Rev. xxii. 1-2). 
The windows and doors of the church to the r. of the panel 
are filled with foliage. 

No. 32 probably represents the childhood of Immanuel 
(Isa. vii. 14). Below we see the results of the establishment 
of this power, typified by the change of nature which causes 
beasts, savage and tame alike, to live together in peace and 
harmony (see Isa. xi. 1-9, also Matt. i. 23). 

No. 33. The Vision of Ezekiel, i. 4-28, in which the 
prophet sees the likeness of the four living creatures. The 
sculpture shows us Christ in an aureole in the act of 
blessing, and surrounded by the four creatures. The 
living creature having the likeness of a man represents 
reason, the creature with the likeness of an ox stands for 
the spirit of sacrifice, the lion symbol is the type of forti- 
tude and justice, and the eagle stands for contemplation. 
Thus the four symbols represented the light of the Gospel, 
and taken together they stood for Christ. It was a vision 
of the time when the Gospel would take the place of Law, 
and when Christ would do away with its ordinances. 

No. 34. This represents the story in 2 Maccabees hi. 
14-40. The priests of the Temple at Jerusalem acted as 
guardians of money belonging to widows and orphans.: 
King Antiochus sent Heliodorus to take this treasure.: 
When the latter was in the treasury with his guards there 
appeared a horse with a terrible rider. Heliodorus was 
smitten to the ground, and two young men, notable in 
strength and beautiful in glory, beat him with many 



336 0RV1ET0 

stripes. On the intercession of Onias, the high priest, his 
life was granted to him, and he offered a sacrifice and vowed 
vows seeing that he had thus escaped. When the king 
asked Heliodorus who else should be sent, he answered 
that if there were any enemy or any conspirator against 
the king he should go, for there was about the place a 
power of God. The chastisement of Heliodorus was 
regarded as a type of Christ driving out the money- 
changers from the Temple. 

No. 35. This panel probably represents the prophecy of 
Isaiah ii. and hi., in which the destruction of Jerusalem 
is foreseen as the result of the backsliding of the nation. 
The particular part chosen for representation may be that 
spoken of in Isaiah hi. 13-14 : " The Lord stand eth up to 
plead, and standeth to judge the people. The Lord will 
enter into judgment with the ancients of his people and the 
princes thereof : for ye have eaten up the vineyard ; the 
spoil of the poor is in your houses." 

No. 36. This is probably a reference to Zech. xi. 12, " So 
they weighed for my hire thirty pieces of silver," which was 
understood by the commentators as a prophecy of the 
betrayal. We are also reminded by such passages as 

1 Samuel ii. 3 and Proverbs xvi. 2, that God's ways are 
not as man's ways, and that it is God who weigheth the 
spirits. 

No. 37 is probably a representation of the vision in 

2 Esdras ix. 38-47 and x. 1-17, in which a woman sorrowing 
for her son comes out of the city into the field, and mourns 
and fasts so that she may die. The woman (2 Esdras x. 
44-49) is Zion ; she mourns for the City of Jerusalem, whose 
destruction is signified by the death of the woman's son. 
Then is shown to the prophet (2 Esdras x. 50-54) the 
future brightness of the glory and the comeliness of the 
beauty of the city of the Most High, even as it had been 
shown to the woman in the field (2 Esdras x. 16) that she 
should again receive her son and be praised among women. 

No. 38. The Crucifixion. This is not a representation of 
the historical event, but rather a recognition of the pro- 



THE DUOMO 337 

phetic view that it was the victory on the Cross by which 
the bonds of sin were to be loosed, and the whole world 
to be reconciled. The sun and the moon, the only details 
of the picture, recall Psalms cxlviii. 2-3. They were also 
supposed to represent the two Testaments and likewise 
the divine and human nature united in Christ. 

No. 39. The " man Gabriel " appears to the prophet 
Daniel (ix. 21-26), and shows him when " the annointed 
one, the prince " shall come, and how " the anointed one " 
shall be cut off. 

No. 40 probably refers to the declaration made in Malachi 
iv. 2, " But unto you that fear My name, shall the sun of 
righteousness arise with healing in His wings." 

No. 41. The Archangel Gabriel in Annunciation. He 
flies towards Madonna, who sits in the central line below 
Christ. Mary raises her hand as she says, " Behold the 
handmaid of the Lord, be it unto me according to thy 
word " (Luke i. 3&). 

This series of prophecies is remarkable, inasmuch as it 
represents the spirit of the Kingdom of Christ to which the 
world looked forward, rather than any mere accordance 
between the terms of prophecy and the actual events of the 
life of Christ. It would have been easy to take each fact 
as described on the third pier and give its exact prophetical 
parallel on the second. Something more than that has 
been attempted : the prophecies of the second pier have a 
direct bearing on the coming of Christ ; but there is also 
everywhere a suggestion of the spiritual results that are 
to mark the new order. 

The new horizon is the subject of the Sibyl's prophecy 
(No. 28); the new spirit, which is to animate it, is the note 
of the vision of Ezekiel (No. 33). The descent of the Spirit 
and the gift of grace are foreseen in the Consecration of 
David (No. 27), and the dew which Gideon wrings out of 
the fleece (No. 26). The new life, which the Gospel is to 
bring with it, is described by the river which brings healing 
to all things (No. 31). The scene from Isaiah (No. 29) 
shows that this new life will no longer be lived in a world of 



338 ORVIETO 

shadows, but in the full light of the skill and understanding 



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Plan XX. — Second Pier, Duomo, Orvieto 

which Gabriel comes to give to Daniel (No. 39). The 



THE DUOMO 339 

stone which fills the earth (No. 30) is a figure of all-per- 
vading Faith ; the prophet preaches Hope to the mother 
who has lost her son, and who is to regain him (No. 37) ; 
while in the Crucifixion (No. 38) there is the supreme 
sacrifice prompted by Love. The stories of Balaam (Nos. 
24, 25) and Heliodorus (No. 34) illustrate the power of the 
Spirit when it is opposed to the worldly element in men's 
lives, and the prophecy of Isaiah (No. 35) warns against a 
selfish oppression of the poor. Finally there is the con- 
trast between the disobedience ending in the death of 
Adam, and the obedience of Mary, which leads to the ful- 
filment of all prophecy and to the beginning of the reign of 
the spiritual and harmonious life, which is the note of the 
new era. 

The Third Pier 

(Plan XXL, p. 342) 

We now turn to the third pier, on which is sculptured a 
history of the life of Christ. The Doctors of the Middle 
Ages taught, that they who desired to behold the Glory of 
Christ's Divine Nature must follow the journey of His 
mortal life ; we have therefore such epitomes as the one 
before us. The choice of subjects, limited as it is pretty 
closely to those connected with the Nativity and Passion, 
indicates that the intention was to direct the mind to the 
Incarnation. 

Mediaeval thinkers were accustomed to regard mankind 
as forming a mystical Body which existed for some pur- 
pose or end, and which was directed towards it by some 
vivifying principle. The purpose or end of mankind was 
reunion with the Creator, and the vivifying principle was 
Christ, who was conceived of as the Head of the mystical 
Body composed of mankind as a whole. The sculpture of 
this third pier was intended to explain this vivifying prin- 
ciple in action, and to show how it affects the life of each 
individual man. The sculpture springs from the sleeping 



340 0RVIET0 

form of Abraham (No. 42), and it records the fulfilment of 
the promise made to him : " In thee shall all the families of 
the earth be blessed " (Gen. xii. 3). 

The tree which branches out from this root has in its 
main stem the spiritual ancestry of Christ — the Prophets 
(No. 43), who foresaw His comings and who predicted the 
salvation which He was to br»ing. 

It is the tree of the Gospel. It is the tree which through 
man's disobedience had become the tree of death, and has 
now become the tree of life. 

We begin at the lower left-hand corner with the Annun- 
ciation (No. 44). This scene marks the reconcilement of 
the world with God. The true light has descended from 
heaven. The hopes and desires of the Patriarchs and 
Prophets have been heard. Madonna bears a closed book, 
which the author of Isa. xxix. 11 says the learned men of 
Jerusalem would not read and the unlearned could not 
read . The prophecy usually associated with the Annuncia- 
tion is that in Isa. vii. 14. 

No. 45, The Visitation, was connected with the pro- 
phecy of Obadiah i. 1. The scene portrayed was the 
occasion of the Magnificat. This song of rejoicing marked 
the contrast between the lowliness of Mary and the pride of 
our first parents. 

No. 46. The Nativity. The relative prophecy is that of 
Isa. ix. 6. The ox and the ass were by some considered as 
types of the Jewish and Gentile nations who were united in 
the birth of the Son of Justice. 

No. 47. The Adoration of the Ma&i. This was regarded 
as the call of the Gentiles. In these three Magi, all people 
worship the Author of the universe. Many prophecies 
were considered to be predictions of their visit, the most 
usual one being Ps. lxxii. 15. Gold was offered to the 
Child in His character as King. Myrrh was offered to His 
humanity and incense to His divinity. 

No. 48. The Presentation in the Temple prophesied in 
Mai. iii. 1. The old age of Simeon was a figure of the " old 
man," Simeon bearing the Child was the assumption of 




STrrrrxrt 



Photograph : Alinari 

NATIVITY OF THE VIRGIN 

(By Andrea Orcagna. Shrine of Or San Michele, FLORENce) 

Compare with scenes from the Life of Christ on the third pier at Orvieto 



THE DUOMO 341 

the " new man." It was a figure of the passing from the 
shadow of the Law to the light of the Gospel. 

No. 49. The Flight into Egypt (see Ps. lv. 6-8 and Hos. 
xi. 1). The Child went down into Egypt so that grace 
might appear to the people among whom the slaying of the 
Lamb first foreshadowed the health-bringing sign of the 
Cross. 

No. 50, The Massacre of the Innocents, was predicted in 
Joel iii. 19, and was a foreshadowing of the persecutions, 
which the Church was destined to pass through. 

No. 51. Christ among the Doctors, is associated with Jer. 
viii. 9. This incident was considered as a warning of how 
the darkness of unbelief not only prevents the light from 
penetrating to the understanding, but confuses the appre- 
hension of the knowledge on which the unbeliever prides 
himself. 

No. 52. The Baptism. See 2 Kings v. 10. Christ was 
baptised not that He might be cleansed but so that he 
might sanctify water as the symbol of purification for man. 
The opening of the heavens, when the dove descended, was 
significant of the opening of the heavenly kingdom to the 
regenerate soul. 

No. 53. The Temptation. The relative prophecy is 
found in Nahum i. 11. In the history of Christ's tempta- 
tion men saw the struggle which they themselves had to 
pass through. They thought of it as inevitable, they 
accepted it as a necessary element in the strengthening of 
character, they saw in it the opportunity of self-knowledge, 
they rejoiced in it, for they thought that victory brought 
the crown of life. 

No. 54. The Triumphal Entry, Zech. ix. 9. This scene 
signified the entry which Christ was to make into heaven, 
while the lament over Jerusalem foreshadowed the grief for 
the souls who would not hear the message of the Gospel. 

No. 55. The Betrayal, Ps. xli. 9. The choice made by 
Judas is a figure of the choice made by those who prefer 
material or worldly shadows to spiritual and celestial 
realities. 



342 



ORVIETO 




Plan XXI.— Third Pier, Duomo, Orvieto 



THE DUO MO 343 

No. 56. The Flagellation, Ps. xxxviii. 18. It was thought 
that in suffering from the Crown of Thorns Christ cancelled 
the curse which had fallen on the earth for the sin of Adam. 
He who though blameless suffered scourging showed what 
sinful men ought to do in punishment of their evildoing. 

No. 57. The Crucifixion, Isa. liii. 5. This is an abstract 
of the usual representation of the scene with Madonna and 
S. John at the foot of the Cross and the inscription on the 
tree. The view of the early Church as to the significance of 
the Crucifixion is fitly summed up in the saying of Leo the 
Great, " For who could overcome the world's hatred, the 
blasts of temptation, the terror of persecutors, had not 
Christ in the name of all and for all said to the Father, 
( Thy will be done ' ? " 

No. 58. The Maries at the Tomb, Ps. cxxxix. 18. Dante 
considers the three women as figures of the Epicureans, the 
Stoics, and the Peripatetics — that is, those who live in the 
active life. They search for their beatitude in the things of 
this present world of unrealities — that is, in the empty 
tomb. The angel who represents the divine element in 
man directs them to contemplation as the true beatitude. 
For though an imperfect state of blessedness is found in the 
exercise of the moral virtues of the active life, beatitude is 
only perfected when the intellect contemplates God and 
ponders on Him in His purpose. 

No. 59. " Noli me tangere." Mary Magdalene was re- 
garded as a type of the Gentile Church, which did not 
believe, until after Christ had ascended into heaven, and 
hence it was supposed came the command. 

The sculptures of the third pier show us the fulfilment of 
the expectation of the old world, and present a forecast of 
the spiritual life which was to be the vivifying principle 
of the new. 

The Fourth Pier 

(Plan XXII., p. 345) 

This pier concludes the drama of human life. The 
design takes the form of a tree, the vine, fruit-bearing, a 



344 ORVIETO 

symbol of the souls who are gathered to the communion of 
heaven. 

In the upper part of the pier we see " that most brilliant 
senate set in this most splendid senate-house." 

In the centre Christ is seated (No. 60) surrounded by the 
choirs of angels, to the R. and l. are the symbols of the 
Passion, and beyond are angels (No. 61) sounding the 
trumpets which summon to the Resurrection. On the l. 
of Christ sits the Prophets with S. John the Baptist 
(No. 62), and on the r. are the Apostles with Madonna 
(No. 62). 

At the bottom of the pier the dead are rising out of the 
tombs (No. 63). In the panel above this (No. 64) the 
Elect are assembling, and in the panel to the spectator's 
r. is the company of the damned (No, 65). Below (in 
panel No. 66) is Hell. Between these lower sculptures and 
the upper part of the design where Christ is seated there 
are four panels (Nos. 67, 68, 69, 70) in which the blessed are 
shown approaching the throne ; they are guided and en- 
couraged by angels. In No. 69 there is an assembly of 
men, including S. Francis and a Pope, supposed to be 
Nicholas IV., while women are gathered in No. 70. 

This company of the saints is about to enjoy the vision of 
the Divine glory, regarded by mediaeval speculation as the 
true refreshment of the soul. 

For those who have found their goal in the transitory 
things of this life there is also an everlasting state. We 
see it in the panels No. 65 and 66, where the damned are 
gathered together to suffer the tortures of hell (No. 66). 
The artist has tried to realise the thought of S. Gregory the 
Great — how great is the confusion of the wicked when the 
Eternal Judge is discerned without, and sin is set in review 
before the eyes within. 

In its relation to the other piers this is the one in which 
the whole scheme comes to fruition. The Creation on the 
first pier is followed by the Fall. Then begins the work of 
restoration in the institution of labour and of the arts and 
sciences , The second pier shows the early development qf 



THE DUOMO 



345 




Plan XXII.— Fourth Pier, Duomo, Orvieto 



346 ORVIETO 

the spiritual life of the world, and how it advanced with the 
hope and expectation of a Messiah, as its principle of life. 
The third pier continues the history in the light of the fulfil- 
ment of all hopes and promises, and under the influence of 
the example of the life of Christ among men. The goal of 
all striving, the end of all effort, is reached on the fourth 
pier, where the blessed stand in the sight of God and enjoy 
the full communion of saints. 

Interior. The nave and aisles are covered with wooden 
roofs ; the choir and transepts are vaulted nearly* to the 
height of the roof-tree of the nave. The ground plan is 
perfectly simple : there are no side aisles in the tran- 
septs, therefore there is no complex vista of columns as at 
Siena. The nave arcade is formed of six columns and 
piers. Both walls and pillars are built in alternate courses 
of black and white marble. The capitals are unusually 
shallow, most of them boldly and deeply cut. In a few 
cases birds are introduced amongst the foliage with grace- 
ful effort. One capital has human and animal heads. 

The spectral-looking frescoes of the choir give character 
to the general effect of the building, otherwise dependent 
upon dignified spaciousness. 

The Choir 
(Plan XXIII., p. 350) 

[Ugolino di Prete Ilario was commissioned to paint the 
frescoes in the choir in 1370. He died in 1384, leaving the 
work unfinished. Giacomo da Bologna undertook to paint 
here in 1491, and Pinturicchio was employed in 1492. In 
1496 he painted two of the Doctors. Antonio da Viterbo 
(1497-1499) is supposed to have painted the angel in the 
Annunciation and some other parts of the frescoes. 

The subject of the frescoes is the coming of Christ and 
the life of the Virgin. In the vaults Christ in glory and the 
Holy Spirit are manifested. In the lunettes are the Pro- 
phets. On the walls the Apostles, Evangelists and Doctors. 
On the lower parts of the walls the life of the Virgin is repre- 



THE DUO MO 347 

sented as the direct and intimate link between the human 
and divine natures.] 

(a) On the vault over the entrance is Christ with Seraphim 
and Cherubim. 

(c) On the vault to the R. of Christ, the Dove of the Holy 
Spirit spreads the rays of its power over all the people of 
the earth. 

(d) On the vault to the l. of Christ are the orders of 
angels. 

On the side walls of the choir to the l. — No. i, S. John 
the Evangelist ; No. 2, S. Matthew ; No. 3, S. Augustine ; 
No. 4, S. Jerome. On the right wall — No. 32 , S. Mark ; 
No. 33, S. Gregory. The defaced parts of the wall at Nos. 
30 and 31 no doubt had figures of S. Luke and S. Ambrose. 

The circular window (A) to the l. has traces of the 
Apostles, each contributing one of the parts of the Creed. 
The paintings round the window to the r. (B) have been 
destroyed. 

The spiritual forces of the old and the new dispensations 
are suggested in the lunettes (f) and (g) over the side walls. 
To the right, at (f), there are Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob ; 
Isaiah, Jeremiah, and S. John the Baptist. To the left, 
at (g), there are the Martyrs, SS. Laurence and Stephen ; 
the Martyrs and Virgins, SS. Lucy and Agnes ; S. Martin, 
who parted his robe with the beggar ; and S. Sylvester and 
Constantine the Pope and the Emperor who established 
Christianity in the West. The same contrast between the 
old and the new is kept up in the frescoes round the lancet 
window in the eastern wall. Td the right are Adam, Noah, 
Abraham, Melchisedek, Joseph, Moses, and Job. To the 
left, SS. Ignatius, Vincentius, Nicholas, and SS. Mary 
Magdalene, Catherine, Antonina, and Agnes. 

We must next consider the pictures relating to the life of 
the Virgin. They begin with the story of her father and 
mother, Joachim and Anna. Joachim was of the city of 
Nazareth, and Anna was a Bethlehemite. They lived a 
simple and charitable life, giving a third of their goods to 
the Temple, a third to the needy, and a third they kept 



348 ORVIETO 

for their own necessities. At the feast of the Dedication 
Joachim's offering was refused, he being childless. In his 
discomfiture he went to dwell with his herdsmen, and 
thither an angel was sent in answer to his prayers. A 
daughter was promised to him, and he was bidden to go to 
the Golden Gate at Jerusalem, where he should meet his 
wife, Anna. To her likewise there was sent an angel, who 
gave the same message. Thus when they met they knew 
that the promise was confirmed to them. In like fashion as 
Sarah bare Isaac in her old age, and as Rebecca after a 
long time became the mother of Joseph, so to Anna there 
came, as the special gift of God, the child Mary. 

No. 5. Joachim is driven out from the Congregation. 
An angel appears to him. 

No. 6. An angel appears to Anna. 

No. 7. Joachim and Anna meet at the Golden 
Gate. 

No. 8. Nativity of the Virgin. 

No. 9. When three years of age she was dedicated to the 
service of God, and was brought to the Temple. Until she 
was fourteen years old she lived within the precincts, being 
visited daily by angels. When she reached the proper age 
she refused to leave the Temple and to be given in marriage. 
The High Priest, therefore, by command of a voice from 
the ark, called together the men of the house of David, and 
when their rods were laid on the altar a dove rested on the 
one belonging to Joseph, and he was betrothed to Mary 
(No. 10). 

No. 11. The Annunciation. The willing submission of 
Mary to the message of the angel was an evidence of her 
deep humility, as opposed to the sin of pride (Purg. x. 40.) 

No. 12. The Salutation. The haste with which Mary set 
out to visit Elizabeth was used as an example against the 
sloth which benumbs spiritual life (see Purg. xviii. 102). 
Her love for Elizabeth and her readiness to serve were 
cited by S. Bonaventura as evidence of that charity which 
prompts man to love his neighbour. 

No. 13. The chastity of Mary is revealed to Joseph in a 



THE DUOMO 349 

vision. In Purg. xxv. 128 she appears to the souls who are 
being purified as the symbol of this virtue. 
No. 14. Joseph takes Mary to his own house. 
No. 15. The Nativity of Christ. The lowly circum- 
stance of the birth of the Child is set before the Avaricious 
in Purg. xx. 19 as an example. 

No. 16. Adoration of the Shepherds. No. 17. The 
Circumcision. No. 18. The Adoration of the Magi. No. 19. 
The Presentation in the Temple. No. 20. The Flight 
into Egypt. 
No. 21. Defaced. 

No. 22. The Child with the Doctors in the Temple. 
No. 23. Joseph and Mary miss the Child. 
No. 24. They find Him in the Temple. 
No. 25. They chide Him. The meekness of Mary's re- 
proof is used as an example to those who are being cleansed 
from the sin of Anger in Purg. xv. 8^. 

The frescoes from Nos. 15 to 25 represent the life of the 
Virgin in its immediate relationship to that of the Child. 
They also suggest how her life was regarded as an example 
of the virtues by which a man's nature is perfected. 
The history is taken up again in 

No. 26 (Plan XXIIL). An angel announces that the soul 
of Mary will be taken from her body on the third day. 

No. 27. The Apostles, who were miraculously called from 
where they were preaching, kneel round the bed. The 
night was spent in holy communion, and in the morning 
the soul was parted from the body and was carried up in 
the arms of Christ. 

No. 28. The body of the Virgin was laid in a sepulchre, 
and there it remained for three days. 

No. 29. On the third day the body of the Virgin was 
raised from the tomb. 

(e.) In the lunette over the window is the Ascension of 
the Virgin. 

(b.) The Coronation of the Virgin. This consummation 
was regarded as the fulfilment of the saying in Rev. iii. 21, 
" To him that overcometh will I grant to sit with Me on My 
2 A 



35° 



ORVIETO 



throne." It was a pledge of that glory which is to be the 
lot of all faithful souls. 




These frescoes vary in merit. Christ receiving Madonna 
in the scene of the Coronation, the figure of the Virgin in the 
Sposalizio, Christ among the Doctors, and the Child found 



THE DUOMO 351 

by His parents are all fair examples of an art that does not 
take a first place. On the other hand, the Expulsion of 
Joachim and the Return of Joseph and Mary to their house 
are coarse and unsatisfactory. If, however, the paintings 
be judged as a whole and from some little distance, it will 
be seen that the clear shadowless colour and the simple 
dignity of the forms yield a most harmonious result. This 
naif art, untroubled with the problems that beset the men 
of the Renaissance, relies for its charm on the simplicity 
and directness of its means. It finds a fit object in 
the story of Madonna, in which S. Bonaventura saw 
reflected, as in a mirror, all that makes for goodness and 
truth. 



To the r. of the entrance to the choir is the Cappella de 
Magi, for which Sammicheli, who was Capo Maestro (1514- 
152 1 ), furnished a design. When Clement VII. brought 
Sangallo to Orvieto after the sack of Rome, he also made a 
design. Both were submitted to the Pope, who decided in 
favour of that by Sammicheli. In 1535 Simone Mosca 
was employed, having for his assistants his son Francesco, 
a youth of fifteen, and Raffaello da Montelupo. The bas- 
relief is due to them, and the work was finished in 1546. 

To the l. of the choir is a relief of the Visitation, de- 
signed by Simone Mosca in 1546. His son Francesco 
worked at it for a short time, and then left. He was 
recalled in 1550, and, with the help of Ippolito Scalza and 
others, the work was finished in 1554. 



Cappella della Madonna di S. Brizio 

[The chapel opening out of the r. transept is known as 
the Cappella della Madonna di San Brizio from a miracle- 
working picture which is still over the altar. The building 
was begun in 1408. At the sides of the window in the end 
wall of the chapel are the figures of two b" shops supposed 



352 ORVIETO 

to represent SS. Brizio and Costanzo. S. Brizio was bishop 
of Spoleto or Assisi in the first century, and S. Peter is 
said to have given him power to consecrate pastors in the 
churches he should visit. S. Costanzo was a bishop of 
Perugia ; he was martyred in the second century. In 1447 
the painting of the chapel was begun by Fra Angelico y 
w r ho painted the Christ in the vault over the high altar, 
and the group of prophets in the vault to the r. ; he is 
also said to have drawn the design for the group of martyrs. 
After Fra Angelico was called away nothing was done for 
many years. Negotiations with Perugino fortunately led 
to no result. It was in 1499 that Luca Signorelli was em- 
ployed to finish the vaults of the roof, and in 1500 he was 
commissioned to paint the walls. The work was still going 
on in the year 1 504, and there was money due to him so late 
as 1509. 

Luca Signorelli was a citizen of Cortona, born there 
about 1441. He took an active part in the government 
of the town, and Vasari says that he was " a man of up- 
right life, and sincere in all things. He lived splendidly, 
and had pleasure in clothing himself handsomely." He 
survived both Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael, dying, as it 
is believed, in 1523. He was a pupil of Piero della Fran- 
cesca, and it is supposed that he also came under the in- 
fluence of Antonio Pollaiuolo, a Florentine, who was trained 
as a goldsmith. It is true of nearly all the great Italian 
masters that they excelled in fresco, but of none is it more 
true than of Signorelli. Many of his altar-pieces painted on 
panel are in existence, but none of them reveal to us the 
intellectual quality and the imaginative power which is 
found in the frescoes at Orvieto. Signorelli is not a great 
colourist ; he has no suave Umbrian sentiment, nor does 
he see the spacious distances of Perugino. He realises 
himself fully only in terms of human life. He gains ex- 
pression for the deepest and most far-reaching relations 
of existence in the human form. No monument of the 
time is so thoroughly characteristic of the finer develop- 
ments of the Renaissance, and no other monument of the 



THE DUOMO 353 

period (with the exception of the Sistine Chapel) gives such 
a sense of power and strength. 

The note of the scheme in this chapel is Christ in Judg- 
ment. 

This central figure is preceded by a history of mankind 
arranged round the great poets of antiquity — Dante being 
included. These pictures are followed by the signs of the 
coming judgment, including the reign of Antichrist, and 
the resurrection from the dead. Then we have the judg- 
ment, and finally the everlasting life of beatitude or punish- 
ment.] 

On entering the chapel, turn to the l. 

The Signs of Judgment 

(i., Plan XXV., p. 360.) The first sign of judgment is the 
confusion on earth, the signs and wonders in heaven, and 
the perplexity of the nations described in Luke xxi. 25 and 
in Rev. vi. 12. It is an account of what follows on the 
opening of the sixth seal, when the sun became black as 
sackcloth of hair, and the moon became as blood, and the 
stars fell upon the earth. This fresco is on the entrance 
wall. 

(ii., Plan XXV.) The next sign is the reign of Anti- 
christ. As we stand in the entrance, it is to our l., on the 
side wall. This is one of the finest frescoes in the series ; 
it gives a remarkable picture of the trials and temptations 
of this life. It is a study of the eyil and confusion in the 
world, the hopeless discord and futility of human life when 
there is no perception of its true significance nor of the end 
towards which men should strive. The coming of Antichrist 
was a constant preoccupation of the mediaeval mind . Around 
this mysterious conception centred all the evil tendencies 
of the world. His coming was to cause the falling away of 
many from the true faith, his dominion was to be short- 
lived, only extending to three and a half years, as in the 
Apocalypse ; but it was to be bloody and disastrous be- 
yond measure, and it was to precede the day of judgment. 



354 ORVIETO 

It is this concentration of all the powers of evil which 
Signorelli strives to paint. The drama begins with the fall 
of the evil spirit, driven out from heaven by the sword of the 
angel. Antichrist descends, as does the Dove of the Holy 




Plan XXIV.— Cappella della Madonna 
di S. Brizio, Duomo, Orvieto 

(Looking towards the entrance) 

Spirit, in rays from above. The coming of Antichrist, like 
his kingdom on earth, like the deeds by which he beguiles 
men and the means by which he imposes his rule over their 
souls, are in form the duplicates in evil of all the good that 
goes to the establishment of the kingdom of heaven. The 



THE DUOMO 355 

descent of Antichrist brings evil and death, just as the 
descent of the Holy Spirit brings the gifts of healing. He 
falls amidst a crowd of men and women. Some look up- 
wards as if for guidance, others realise the tragedy of their 
lives, ending in nothing but futile effort, evil passion, 
despair, and death. 

The coming of Antichrist is followed by the preaching of 
his kingdom. He stands on a pedestal, and, according to 
the promptings of the devil, he speaks to the crowd. There 
is no weak attempt to make him odious or diabolic ; he is 
one of the most magnificent conceptions of Renaissance art* 
He is grave, reverend, and thoughtful, full of power and 
force ; and yet with subtle art Signorelli makes it clear that 
the kingdom of darkness is overshadowing its king. At the 
foot of the pedestal lie rich vases full of coin, and other 
symbols of the voluptuous life by which Antichrist tempts 
the souls of men to destruction. 

The false prophet is making no merely rhetorical appeal 
to the feelings ; he knows the weaknesses of humanity, and 
he has a lure for all. He appeals to some by suasion and a 
false exposition of the Scriptures. We see the monks and 
learned men discuss his positions with the text before 
them ; they seem to be weighing the promises of the good 
things of this life against some faint recollection of a better 
and a higher ideal ; their doubts give them an evil con- 
science, a troubled expression , and an irresolute air. 
Where persuasion fails Antichrist tempts by the working 
of miracles. In the background a sick person rises up in 
bed. The incident represents a cure of some disease or 
perhaps a revival from death ; women render thanks, and a 
group of men in wonder and amazement look on. 

Another group is tempted with gifts ; a servant of Anti 
christ passes from one to another with an alert and acute 
air. A woman in the foreground unwillingly receives 
money from him ; she turns away as she holds out her 
hand, and her face tells us that she knows it is the wages of 
death. 

Where all these temptations fail Antichrist falls back on 



356 ORVIETO 

violence and terror. When the appeal to the intellect, to 
the feelings, and to vicious longings has been resisted, he 
will break down resistance by persecution and bloodshed. 
In the foreground and to the l. of the picture one of the 
emissaries of evil strangles a man with a business-like pre- 
cision characteristic of a Renaissance bravo ; near by lies 
a monk with his head split open, and others have fallen 
by knife or dagger. 

In the background is a magnificent palace, a fit abode for 
those who live in the pride of the eyes and the pride of life.; 
About its porticoes move armed servants ; some of them 
drag a prisoner to punishment, and in front of the entrance 
Antichrist stands watching over the martyrdom of Enoch 
and Elias, the two witnesses for God, in whose death the 
Kingdom of Evil was finally established. 

The third sign of judgment is seen in the fresco on the 
entrance wall (iii., Plan XXV.). It describes the vehement 
fire that comes before the judgment ; it is sent so that the 
old world may be purified, and that from it may come a new 
heaven and a new earth, unpolluted by discord. It also 
cleanses the sin of those who are alive at the second coming, 
and have not therefore climbed through the circles of Pur- 
gatory. It is as a pillar of fire to give light to the saints, 
and to add to the torments of the damned. 

3. The Resurrection 

After the signs of judgment, there is the Resurrection 
(iv., Plan XXV.) on the side wall. Two angels sound the 
trumpets of the resurrection, each trumpet having the 
banner of the cross. On the plain below many souls have 
already risen. They stand in groups, most of them gazing 
upwards in search of the power by which they have been 
awakened ; others are still in the act of freeing themselves 
from the grave with much effort. Sometimes it is a skele- 
ton that forces its way upwards, and to the R. they stand 
in a group. The skeletons are probably placed here in 
accordance with the legend that one of the tokens of the 





Anderson 



DETAIL FROM MICHELANGELO'S PICTURE OF THE DELUGE 

(Sistine Chapel, Rome) 

Compare with the fresco of the Destruction of the World, in the Cappella 
della Madonna di S. Brizio, by Signorelli 



THE DUOMO 357 

coming judgment is that the bones of dead men shall issue 
out of their graves. 

One group of souls stand in loving recollection of the 
tender affection they enjoyed on earth. They have a 
melancholy air, for they do not yet realise that now theirs 
is the life everlasting. There is not a single example of 
theatrical pose, of weak or exaggerated feeling, or of forced 
action. It is a remarkable realisation, that stamps itself 
indelibly on the mind. 

4. The Judgment 

Christ in judgment is depicted on the roof of the chapel 
(v., Plan XXIV., p. 354). He raises His right hand, and 
with His left He holds the globe of the universe. Outside 
the aureole of light which surrounds Him, are choirs of 
angels. This fresco is for the most part by Fra Angelico. 
In the other divisions of the vaulting of the roof are 
gathered the hierarchies of the old and new dispensations. 

(vii., Plan XXIV.) The Patriarchs were watchers for the 
coming of Christ. In the innocency of Abel, in the hope of 
Noah, in the obedience of Abraham, in the meekness of 
Moses, they taught the mysteries of the spiritual life. They 
were each as stars giving light to their own time, until 
Christ, the true morning star, brought the fulness of light 
to all men. The group of Patriarchs is the work of Sig- 
norelli. 

(viii., Plan XXIV.) The Prophets, who foresaw and fore- 
told the coming of Christ. S. John the Baptist sits nearest 
to the Saviour, and behind him is King David. This group 
is by Fra Angelico ; the remaining divisions of the vault 
were painted by Signorelli. 

(ix., Plan XXIV.) In the first harvest the Prophets had 
laboured, and in the second their place was taken by the 
Apostles. Madonna kneels nearest to Christ. 

(x., Plan XXIV.) After the Apostles there came Martyrs, 
and when the Martyrs were taken, there followed the 
Doctors of the Church; it was through their preaching 



358 ORVIETO 

and teaching that the brightness of the light of the Gospel 
dispelled the dark shadows of ignorance. The Choir of 
Virgins has for its central figure S. Mary Magdalene. 
Many of them bear palms of martyrdom. They move the 
spirits of men so that they may fight the^good fight and 
win the Crown of Life. 

Thus we are taught how the goodly fellowship of the 
Prophets, the glorious company of the Apostles, the noble 
army of Martyrs, and Holy Church throughout the entire 
world acknowledge the infinite majesty of the glory of 
Christ. 

5. The Fate of the Wicked 

On the side wall to the R. (xiii., Plan XXIV.) there is the 
scene in which the devils seize the damned and hurry them 
off to their allotted place. This is the least convincing of 
the four large frescoes, and yet no artist has ever more 
nearly conveyed in its terrible simplicity the vision which 
Dante calls up in Inferno iii. 16-18 : " We are come to the 
place where I told thee thou shouldst see the wretched 
people who have lost the good of the intellect." 

Signorelli has chosen the scene which occurs so often 
over the great doorways in thirteenth-century Gothic 
cathedrals. At Notre Dame, in Paris, the wicked are 
gathered in a chain and drawn hellwards in a mass. Here, 
at Orvieto, it is an individual struggle. Each devil seizes 
his victim, binds him, or clutches him in his arms and 
carries him off. Some fly away with their prey, and three 
armour-clad angels stand on guard, lest any of the lost 
souls should escape toward the way of the blessed. The 
devils do their work too well for that, and the three are 
impassive onlookers, watching the struggle. 

The devils gain in horror from their humanity. Some 
have wings, reminding us that they are fallen angels, 
others have horns, but there is no intention to dwell on 
such things, and there is no desire to gain effect by grot- 
esque incident. It is essentially an intellectual hell, in 




Photograph: Anderson 

DETAIL FROM MICHELANGELO'S FRESCO OF THE DELUGE 

(Sistine Chapel, Rome) 

Compare with the " Fate of the Sinners " in the Cappella della Madonna 
di S. Brizio. By Signorelli 



THE DUOMO 350 

which the terror is greater, inasmuch as man suffers in his 
highest faculties and by means of devils who are mainly 
differentiated from himself by calculated hate. 

The fate of the wicked is continued on the right-hand 
side of the window (xiv., Plan XXIV.). The design follows 
generally the vision which Dante describes in the third 
canto of Inferno. 

The group to the R. of the picture await the coming of 
Charon's boat. His eyes are like glowing coal ; he collects 
the sinners and smites with his oar whoever lingers. " As 
the leaves of autumn fall off one after the other ... so 
one by one the evil seed of Adam cast themselves from 
that shore . . . and ere they have landed on the other 
shore again a fresh crowd collects on this." In the back- 
ground of the picture there is the " crew of caitiffs/' 
dreary souls who lived without blame and without praise. 
" Their blind life is so mean that they are envious of every 
other lot." Their aimless existence on earth finds its 
counterpart on the confines of hell. They follow an 
ensign that ever moves quickly and yet leads nowhere, 

6. The Lot of the Blessed 

On the left hand (xv., Plan XXIV.) is the fresco describ- 
ing the Communion of Saints in Paradise. The blessed are 
looking upwards, they have seen the wicked carried off to 
everlasting torment, and their faces still bear the signs of 
the stress of this world. The terror from which they have 
escaped weighs on their souls, they do not realise the bliss 
they are about to enjoy. And yet in the heaven above 
them all is peace. The nine choirs of angels join in un- 
ending harmonies. Two angels in the centre shed flowers 
upon the blessed, while others place crowns of victory 
upon their heads. In spite of all this joy there is not a 
smile on a single face, human or angelic. 

It is a paradise of men and women who have passed 
through lives full of such experiences as make them grave 
even in the divine presence-chamber, Here there are no 



3 6 ° 



ORVTETO 



child-like monks embraced by child-like angels as in the 
Paradise of Fra Angelico. These are beings of a sterner 




Ok' 



^ 



§ 







ill 



^0 



Plan XXV.— Capella della Madonna 
di S. Brizio, Duomo, Orvieto 

{Looking towards the altar) 

mould, and they are still in the heaven from which the 
shadow of earth has not wholly passed. The waters of 



THE DUOMO 361 

Lethe have not completely washed away the memory and 
the bitterness of worldly discords. 

It is as though these artists of the Renaissance had cast 
away mediae valism without having found a new anchorage. 
The mournful gaze of Botticelli, the sceptical smile of 
Leonardo, the passionate unrest of Michel Angelo, and 
the shadow over Signorelli's Paradise show that none of 
these men had found a resolution of the problems they had 
to face. At first sight the crowd of naked forms and the 
intimate realisation of their anatomy seems to clash with 
a conception of the ideal ; indeed, this picture has been 
regarded by some mainly as a study of the nude, and 
interesting as an example that may have inspired Michel 
Angelo. 

It will fall more truly into its proper place, if we regard 
these grandly muscular forms, standing so firmly on their 
feet and facing us with such stern and grave purpose, as 
symbols of that fortitude, of that strength and fixity of 
will, and of that reverend regard for the relationships of life 
upon which character is based. 

This company of the blessed assert the dignity of human 
nature alike in its physical and intellectual development. 
It is a protest against the mediaeval conception which 
regarded the body as the prison-house of the soul, and 
this world merely as a place of preparation for the next. 

If we compare a mediaeval rendering of Paradise, such as 
that of Orcagna, with this Renaissance conception, we find 
in the former that each saint has his or her worldly rank in 
the spiritual hierarchy carefully recorded ; here the indi- 
vidual does not stand on the quality of distinctions made 
in this world. In the Paradise of Signorelli men and 
women appear as such, and not as Bishops or Abbesses or 
Martyrs or Virgins. We do not know who has borne the 
burden and heat of the day, or who has worked but one 
hour. Here they are all equal, the quality of humanity is 
enough. 

The glory of Paradise is consummated on the wall to the 
l. of the window (xvi., Plan XXIV.). Angels are making 



362 ORVIETO 

music, while others fly downwards to help and encourage 
the blessed souls on their way to the presence of God. 

Below the large scenes are a series of medallions with 
the ancient poets. No names are given to the poets, but 
the nature of the paintings, and the scene in Inferno iv. 
89-90, where Dante describes his meetings with the sages, 
make it probable that they are Homer, Virgil, Ovid, 
Horace, Lucan, and Dante. 

Round each of these, as central figures, there are small 
panels, generally dealing with some scene in their writings 
more or less illustrative of the large frescoes above. In 
the case of Virgil there is an exception, the small illustra- 
tions are not taken from his own poems, but from scenes in 
Purgatory where Virgil was acting as Dante's guide or 
companion. 

To the l., on the entrance wall, there is a painting which 
has been supposed to represent Empedocles. He looks up 
at the scene of destruction and dissolution above him. 
Some have thought that the Philosopher sees in this a 
realisation of his theory of the moving forces of Love and 
Hate. When Hate becomes active, the ordinary bond 
uniting nature is dissolved. In Inferno xii. 44, Dante 
attributes to Empedocles the idea that the alternating 
forces of Love and Hate cause the world " oftentimes to be 
converted into chaos." 

(Plan XXIV., p. 354) 

The first poet on the side wall to the l. is Homer. 
Round him are three small pictures (B, C, and D). They 
have been supposed to represent scenes from Iliad, xviii. 
The shield of Achilles is made by Hephaistos, and on it 
there is figured a judgment scene supposed to be that 
painted at (D). It may be a pendant to the tragedy 
enacted in the picture (C). The figure at (B) has been 
identified as that of Achilles arousing himself to prepare 
for the rescue of the body of Patroklos. These attributions 
are not convincing. 



THE DUOMO 363 

Round the figure of Dante there are four scenes from 
Purgatory. 

(F.) Cato meets Virgil and Dante on the shore of the 
island of Purgatory. Virgil, when challenged by Cato, 
says they are there, in virtue of the prayers of a lady, who 
descended from heaven. He declares that he was sent as 
guide, so that Dante might reach salvation by experience 
of guilt in hell, and now they go to see the souls who are 
being purified (Purg. i. 43-84). 

(G.) In the foreground Virgil points out to Dante the 
boat bringing souls to the island of Purgatory. It is im- 
pelled by an Angel of God, whose light is so brilliant that 
Dante shades his eyes (Purg. ii. 39). In the centre of the 
picture Dante obeys the command of Virgil (Purg. ii. 28) 
to bend his knees in the presence of the Angel, who has just 
guided the boat-load of souls to the shore. In the back- 
ground is the meeting between Casella and Dante (Purg. 
ii. 76-1 11), ending in the indignant protest of Cato against 
the halt which the souls make on their way to the mount of 
cleansing. 

(H.) Virgil asks the way upwards from the souls they 
meet. Dante meets King Manfred (Purg. iii. 113), who 
was killed at the battle of Beneventum (1266). The king 
sends a message to his daughter Constance to comfort her. 
He confesses that his sins were horrible, but Infinite Good- 
ness has arms spread so wide, that all who return may be 
gathered within them. 

(I.) Virgil and Dante begin to climb. They mount on 
broken rock, and need both hands and feet (Purg. iv. 33). 
At the top of the narrow way they sit down to rest. Dante 
wonders why the sun strikes them on the l. (they are in the 
southern hemisphere) (Purg. iv. 57). In the background 
they find Belacqua sitting in the shadow of the rock (Purg. 
vi. 104), more negligent than even if idleness were his 
sister (Purg, iv. 110-112). 

The next of the great men is Virgil ; he is surrounded by 
scenes from the Purgatory of Dante. 

(K.) Virgil reproves Dante for halting to listen to the 



364 ORVIETO 

souls, who are curious and wonder to see a form that casts 
a shadow (Purg. v. 1-18). A number of souls sing the 
" Miserere " (Purg. v. 24). Again the souls marvel at the 
shadow which is cast by Dante. They send two mes- 
sengers to inquire of the condition of the visitors (Purg, vi. 
29-30). 

(L.) The souls gather round Dante. Among the crowd 
are Benincasa of Arezzo, slain by the brother of one who 
had suffered while Benincasa was Podesta of Siena ; Gone, 
of the family of the Tarlati, drowned at the battle of 
Campaldino ; Federigo Novello, a Pisan ; and Pier dalla 
Broccia, chamberlain of Philip III. of France. These all 
desire that prayer may be made, so that their time of purifi- 
cation on the mount shall come quickly (Purg. vi. 1-28). 
In the background Sordello embraces the knees of Virgil 
when the latter declares himself to be a Mantuan. Virgil 
bends over him and returns the salutation. 

(M.) Sordello again embraces Virgil's knees (Purg. vii. 
15), and the poet says that he has lost the light of the Sun, 
not for doing, but for not doing. In the centre of the 
picture Sordello explains that the darkness of night pre- 
vents any one from climbing the mountain. He leads 
them to a point where they can see the souls of Rodolph 
the Emperor and other rulers, who had allowed too great 
a weight to the things of this world. The king sings the 
" Salve Regina " (Purg. vii. 67-136). 

(N.) Virgil, Dante, and Sordello hear the souls of the 
rulers sing " Te lucis ante " (Purg. viii. 13). Two angels 
with naming swords guard the valley against the serpent 
(Purg. viii. 39 and viii. 98). In the background Dante 
talks with Nino Visconti of Pisa (Purg. viii. 53) and Conrad 
Malaspina (Purg. viii. 118). 

The series of small panels dealing with the purification of 
souls is continued on part of the end wall of the chapel. 

(0.) Dante, having fallen asleep (Purg. ix. 10), awakens 
to find himself at the gate of Purgatory (Purg. ix. 39). 
While asleep, Dante has seen a vision of an eagle, who bears 
him aloft (Purg. ix. 29-30), and Virgil explains that Lucia 



THE DUOMO 365 

Has appeared to him and borne Dante upwards to where he 
now is (Purg. ix. 61). To the l. of the picture Dante kneels 
before the angel,, who sits at the gate (Purg. ix. 82). 

(P.) Virgil and Dante enter the first circle on the moun- 
tain of Purgatory through a cleft in the rock (Purg. x. 7). 
On the sides of the path they see sculptured three examples 
of humility, viz., the Annunciation (Purg. x. 40), David 
dancing before the Ark (Purg. x. 65), and Trajan, who did 
justice to the poor widow (Purg. x. 74). At the lower 
right-hand corner they see the souls of the Proud being 
purged, who bear heavy weights, which bow them toward 
the earth. 

(Q.) Virgil and Dante meet three souls who are being 
purged from Pride : Guglielmo Aldobrandeschi (Purg. xi. 
59), Oderigi of Gubbio (Purg. xi. 79), and Provenzano Sal- 
viani (Purg. xi. 121). These three souls are supposed to 
represent the arrogance of the patrician (Aldobrandeschi), 
the vainglory of the artist (Oderigi), and the ambition of the 
politician (Salviani). 

This ends^the series of small panels dealing with the puri- 
fication of the human soul. We need not be surprised that 
the only specific sin dealt with is that of Pride, as it was 
held to be the root of all evil. The pictures dealing with 
these scenes of preparation for the enjoyment of heaven are 
under the large frescoes, in which are gathered the saints 
who receive their crowns and are helped on their way 
heavenwards by the angels. 

(R.) A subject of uncertain significance. 

(S.) With the help of Cupid, Venus causes Dido to be- 
came enamoured of ^Eneas. 

(T.) Herakles is forced to cross a stream with his wife 
Deianeira. Nessus offers to bear her across. The Centaur 
tries to carry her off instead, and is shot by Herakles. 
Nessus gives her a garment soaked in his blood as a charm 
against the infidelity of her husband. Deianeira becom- 
ing jealous sends Herakles a robe on which there is some 
of the blood. It poisons the hero, who dies on a funeral 
pyre. He is carried to Olympos and made immortal, 

2 B 



366 ORVIETO 

(U.) This may represent the war between Herakles and 
Hippokoon. 

(V.) Devils torment the damned. 

(W.) Andromeda is exposed on a rock. Kepheus, her 
father, prays that Perseus will rescue her from the monster,; 
Perseus slays the dragon, and claims Andromeda as his 
bride (see Metamorphoses iv.). 

(X.) Phineus, to whom Andromeda has been promised in 
marriage, breaks in upon the bridal banquet. Perseus 
when nearly overwhelmed by numbers shows the Gorgon's 
Head, and turns his enemies to stone (Metamorphoses v.). 

The small panels from T to X are upon the end wall of 
the chapel, and under the large fresco where the souls of 
the damned suffer. Passing to the side wall the two poets 
Ovid and Horace are under the fresco where the devils 
seize and carry off the souls of the damned. 

The following panels surround the picture of Ovid : — 

(Z.) Typhosus having dared to hope for an abode with 
the gods, is buried under the island of Sicily. The 
struggles of Typhseus cause earthquakes, and Pluto goes 
forth in his chariot to see if his kingdom of the underworld 
is in danger (Metamorphoses v.). 

(A 2.) Diana and Pallas counsel Proserpina against 
Love. Venus moves Cupid to shoot his dart at Pluto so 
that he may be touched by love of Proserpina, lest she, like 
Diana and Pallas, should renounce the empire of Venus 
(Metamorphoses . v.). 

(B 2.) Proserpina is beloved by Pluto, and while she is 
gathering flowers he carries her off in his chariot (Metamor- 
phoses v.). 

(C 2.) Keres goes in search of her daughter. Cupid 
points the way (Metamorphoses v.). 

The following panels are painted round the picture of 
Horace : — 

(E 2.) Eurydike having died of a snake bite, her hus- 
band, Orpheus, goes down ir to the- underworld to recover 
her. He plays so sweetly on his lyre, that they who dwell 
there are charmed from their usual tasks. Pluto grants 



THE DUOMO 367 

Eurydike to him on condition that he does not turn back 
to look at her. 

(F 2.) Orpheus breaks through the condition laid on him, 
he looks back. Three devils seize Eurydike and drag her 
down into the underworld. 

(G 2.) iEneas desires to visit the underworld to see his 
father. Charon objects to carry a living body across the 
river. The Sibyl shows the talisman of the Golden Bough, 
and they are ferried across the Stygian water (Mneid vi. 
383-416). 

(H 2.) Herakles having chained up Kerberos, descends 
into the underworld and liberates' Theseus, who is seen 
armed with sword and shield. 

This finishes the series under the fresco of the devils 
seizing the damned. The last of the poets is Lucan ; 
around his picture there are only two scenes. 

(K 2 .) Probably a scene in the wars between Caesar and 
Pompey, described in Lucan's Pharsalia iv. 235. The two 
armies have fraternised, and Petreius raises the passions of 
the soldiers of Pompey so that strife may be renewed. 

(L 2.) After the battle of Pharsalia Pompey sails to 
Egypt, where he is slain by Achilles {Pharsalia viii. 718). 

In the recess in the wall there are two small panels. 

(M 2.) Probably represents the martyrdom of Faustinus 
— perhaps the saint of this name who suffered in the time 
of Diocletian. 

^ (R 2.) Probably represents the death of Pietro Parenzo, 
said to have been the first Podesta of Orvieto. He was 
sent to make peace in the city in 1x99. Pie caused the 
towers of the nobles to be destroyed, and was treacher- 
ously murdered. His death was avenged by the Guelph 
party. 

Opposite in the l. transept is 

The Cappella del Corporale 

The Cappella del Corporale contains the reliquary, in 
which is preserved the visible signs of the Miracle of Bol- 



368 ORVIETO 

sena. The Miracle was worked in the Church of Sta. Cris- 
tina at Bolsena. In 1263, a German pries t, who was 
troubled with doubt about the Real Presence, made a pil- 
grimage to Rome, hoping to find peace of mind. He 
visited various sanctuaries by the way, and it thus hap- 
pened that he came to celebrate Mass at this place. As he 
broke the bread the wafer was turned into flesh, and blood 
dropped upon the cloth used in the office. Upon it there 
also appeared the image of the Saviour. At that time 
Pope Urban IV. was at Orvieto, and thither the priest went 
to tell what had befallen. The Bishop of Orvieto was sent 
to verify the facts, and afterwards was ordered by the 
Pope to return to Bolsena and bring the relics to Orvietos 
The Pope went out in procession to the bridge of Rio 
Chiaro to meet the returning bishop ; children spread 
olive branches and flowers by the way, and all returned to 
the city with joy and gladness. 

The Miracle happened at an opportune time. In the 
year 1208 the blessed Giuliana, a nun at Liege, had a 
vision of an incomplete circle of light ; it was revealed to 
her that the bright part represented the festivals held in 
honour of other mysteries, while the dark part signified 
that there was lacking a festival in honour of the Holy 
Sacrament. The institution of such a festival was at- 
tempted for a time at Liege, but the Pope hesitated to 
make it general throughout the Church, for he feared to 
make a liturgical innovation without some proof from 
heaven. The Divine sanction was found in the Miracle of 
Bolsena, and by a Bull of the nth August 1264, the Pope 
ordered the celebration of a festival throughout the 
Catholic world. Thomas Aquinas was ordered to com- 
pose an office and a Mass for the celebration which was 
ordained for the glory of the Holy Sacrament, and the 
confounding of heretics. 

In the middle of the thirteenth century the Manichean 
heresy was rife, and besides maintaining the principle of 
dualism, many of the heretical sects were inclined to deny 
the Real Presence. The Miracle of Bolsena came, there- 



THE DUOMO 369 

fore, as a most welcome means of strengthening the position 
of the Church against her enemies. 

We now turn to the frescoes of the Chapel of the Cor- 
porate. They were painted originally between the years 
1357 and 1364 by Ugolino di Prete llano and his assistants. 
The name of Domenico Leonardelli (1557-1563) has also 
been connected with these paintings. 

The frescoes on the side walls nearest to the reliquary 
have been repainted, while those on the walls nearest to 
the nave are almost destroyed. The entire series in the 
chapel, both on the walls and the roof, have a Eucharistic 
significance. 

(Plan XXVI., p. 372) 

We begin with the paintings on the roof over the 
reliquary, (a.) Melchisedek offers bread and wine to 
Abraham. The legend runs, " Melchisedek, King of Salem, 
offered to Abraham bread and wine, for he was a priest of 
the Most High God." In the lunette beneath, S. Jerome 
explains that Melchisedek is to be interpreted as King of 
Justice and King of Peace ; he signifies Christ, King of all 
priests. 

(b.) Abraham welcomes the three angels. He sees three 
but adores only one. He brings water and washes their 
feet, and sets food before them. S. Basil, in the lunette 
below, says : " He adored the Saviour, showing His com- 
ing, and he foresaw the future mystery of the Sacrament." 

(c.) Moses and the Israelites gather Manna. The legend 
is, " He gave them bread from heaven having all virtue in 
it." 

(d.) Elijah is aroused by the angel, he kneels and 
adores, and then eats. He climbs Mount Horeb. In the 
strength of this food he went forty days and forty nights 
up to the Mount of God. In the lunette, S. Gregory says, 
" The Angel which fed Elijah, that is, the Angel of ' Great 
Council,' is Christ, by whose help we exist both in our 
bodily and spiritual nature." 



370 ORVIETO 

The four divisions of the roof nearest to the nave of the 
church have the following representations : — 

(e.) In the upper part Christ stands with the seven 
candlesticks about Him ; over them is the Host. Below, 
Christ appears as the rider on the white horse, crowned and 
armed. He shoots an arrow at the devil. The legend 
says, " A crown is given to Thee, and as a conqueror, Thou 
shalt go forth to conquer." 

In the lunette below, Christ stands among His disciples 
holding the Host, and declares that he who eats shall have 
life eternal. 

(f.) A figure kneels in confession, and S. Paul, pointing 
to the chalice and the wafer on the altar, warns mankind 
that whosoever eats and drinks unworthily eats and drinks 
to his own damnation. 

(g.) Christ in a glory of angels and holding the chalice 
and wafer appears to S. Augustine, who hears a voice from 
heaven. It is shown to him that as the bodily man grows 
by eating food, so the spiritual man must feed on Christ. 
In the lunette below, there is a representation of the Last 
Supper. Christ gives the wafer to Peter and says, " Take, 
eat, this is my body." 

(h.) S. Thomas Aquinas kneels at an altar, to prepare 
himself for writing the new office for the festival of the 
" Corpus Domini." On the altar there is a book, on the 
pages of which is written, " I am the true food." Above 
the altar is a crucifix, and from it Christ speaks to S. 
Thomas : " Thou hast well written of Me, Thomas, there- 
fore thou shalt receive the reward of thy labours." 

The picture in the lunette below is defaced. The scheme 
of this roof seems to be summed up in the saying, " By 
partaking of the body and blood of Christ we pass into 
that which we then take, and both in spirit and in body we 
carry everywhere Him, in whom and with whom we were 
dead and buried." 

We now turn to the narrative frescoes on the wall, be- 
ginning with those which give an account of the Miracle, 
on the right-hand side of the chapel. 



THE DUOMO 371 

No. 1. The Miracle of the blood falling from the Host, in 
the Church of Sta. Cristina, at Bolsena* 

No. 2. The Priest comes to tell the Pope of the Miracle. 

No. 3. The Pope sends the Bishop of Orvieto to verify 
the Miracle. 

No. 4. The Bishop of Orvieto finds the Corporale spotted 
with blood. 

No. 5. The Pope at the head of the people and clergy 
meet the Bishop on his return. The Pope kneels as the 
Corporale is exposed. 

No. 6. The Corporale is shown to the people. 

No. 7. S. Thomas Aquinas presents the office- for the 
celebration of Corpus Domini, which the Pope has ordered 
him to write. 

Passing to the frescoes on the l. wall — 

Nos. 8, 9, and 10 represent how a fisherman put the Host 
into the mouth of a fish. Three years later he confesses 
what he has done. The priest and the fisherman recover 
the Host. 

No. n. A hermit who disbelieves in the Real Presence is 
brought to the altar. As the priest raises the Host, it is 
changed into the likeness of a child. 

No. 12. S. Gregory, having consecrated the Host, pre- 
sents it to an unbelieving woman, who by it receives faith 
in the Sacrament. 

Nos. 13, 14, 15. A Jewish child has received the com- 
munion along with a number of Christian children. The 
indignant father thrusts the child into a glass-blower's 
furnace. The mother calls her neighbours. They rescue 
the child, and put the father into the furnace in his place. 

Nos. 16, 17, 18. Hugh of S. Victor, when sick, is pre- 
sented with the unconsecrated Host. He detects and 
refuses it. The consecrated Host is brought, and he sits 
up in bed and worships. In the next painting Hugh says, 
" Let the Son return to the Father, and my soul to its 
Saviour." In the fresco we see the wafer passing up- 
wards, and the soul of the dead man, shining with a 
brilliant radiance, carried to heaven by angels* 



37^ ORVIETO 

No. 19. A number of Christian prisoners have been 




Plan XXVI.— Cappella del Corporate, 
Duomo, Orvieto 



taken by Mussulmans in battle. Among them is a chap- 
lain. The Saracen king demands to see what the chaplain 



THE DUOMO 373 

can make out of bread, otherwise the prisoners will be 
slain. 

No. 20. The chaplain celebrates Mass, and the Host is 
changed into a child. 

The Christians kneel on one side of the altar, and the 
Saracens on the other. 

No. 21. The child stands on the altar bearing the cross, 
The king is seated on his throne. Some of the soldiers 
kneel, and many conversions take place: 

No. 22. In a window opening to the R. of the entrance, 
it is possible to see traces of the offerings made by Cain and 
Abel, and the sacrifice of Gideon. 

No. 23. To the l. of the entrance, below the first lunette , 
there is a representation of the meal of the Passover. 

No. 24. On the underside of the arch, to the l. of the 
entrance, three frescoes show how a heretic attempted to 
deceive a believer with a representation of a false Madonna 
and Child. The believer takes advice of S. Peter Martyr. 
The saint elevates the Host, and the Child falls from the 
knee of the false representation. 

The reliquary, in which is preserved the Corporale, was 
made by Ugolino di Maestro Vieri in 1337. It is adorned 
with eight representations of the story of the Miracle and 
seven scenes from the life of Christ. 

1. The Priest says Mass. 2. The Priest tells the Pope of 
the Miracle. 3. The Pope sends the Bishop to inquire. 
4. The Bishop verifies the Priest's account. 5. The Bishop 
returns with the Corporale. 6. The Pope comes out of 
Orvieto to meet him. 7. The Pope shows the Corporale to 
the people. 8. S. Thomas Aquinas presents a copy of the 
Office he has written for the festival. 9. The Entry into 
Jerusalem. 10. The Last Supper, n. The Washing of 
the feet. 12. The Sermon to the Apostles after the 
Supper. 

Below these are representations of the Annunciation, the 
Nativity, and the Adoration of the Magi. At the four 
corners are figures of the four Evangelists. 



374 ORVIETO 

The Font 

Near the western door, which is most commonly used, 
there is a font of Renaissance workmanship. It is sup- 
ported on a base carried by eight lions. The work was 
begun in 1390 by Luca di Giovanni of Siena and it was 
finished in 1407, while Sano di Matteo of Siena was Capo 
Maestro. The font is of the traditional octagonal form. 
The most noteworthy thing is the sculpture on a small 
fillet which surrounds the basin. In addition to some 
ornamental work there are allegorical subjects not easy 
to explain. One subject shows a wolf suckling children, 
while another wolf carries off a lamb. It has been sug- 
gested that the one wolf is the true Pope who nourishes the 
Church, while the other is the Antipope who ravages the 
fold. There are besides symbols of the seven virtues. 
Faith is indicated by the Host and Chalice, next is Hope, 
and beyond there is a figure with a flaming censer expres- 
sive of Charity. Prudence, Justice, Temperance, and 
Fortitude are also personified. They appear here as the 
result of the purification and illumination wrought by the 
waters of baptism. 

Near the font on the wall of the aisle is a fresco by 
Gentile da Fabriano (1360, 137 0-142 7, 1428?). The 
picture has been much damaged ; it is still, however, a 
charming example of Umbrian sentiment. 



OTHER CHURCHES 

S. DOMENICO 

* This building was begun on a small scale in 1233, but in 
1245 the plan was changed by the Cardinal Anibaldo 
Anibaldeschi in favour of a more magnificent church with 
a large convent attached. The designs of the Cardinal 
were too ambitious. The vast structure remained in an 



OTHER CHURCHES 375 

incomplete state until the seventeenth century, when it 
was finished off on a smaller scale. 

S. Thomas Aquinas, who lived in Orvieto for a year, 
from 1263 to 1264, persuaded Urban IV. to consecrate this 
church. It is said that the learned doctor not only 
taught theology in the town, but wrote, during the time of 
his visit, the Office of the Corpus Domini, the first book of 
the Catena Aurea, and his commentary upon the De Anima 
of Aristotle. An ancient wooden crucifix, and a chair in 
this church, are shown as having been used by S. Thomas. 
The chief object of interest is the monument erected by 
Arnolfo del Carnbio (1232-1310) to Cardinal Guglielmo di 
Bray, who died in Orvieto in 1280. The tomb may be 
compared with the similar design for the monument to 
Benedict XL in the Church of S. Domenico in Perugia. 

The design of the Cardinal's tomb is architecturally 
superior to the monument at Perugia. The lower part, 
ornamented with mosaic, is particularly successful. The 
recumbent figure, with severely simple drapery, is very fine 
in general outline. But the face of the Cardinal cannot 
compare with the magnificently dignified features of the 
dead Pope. 

The theme of the curtain-drawing angels was probably 
invented by Arnolfo, and used by him on this monument 
for the first time. These angels have no wings, and are 
clothed in dalmatics. They seem busily concerned with - 
their duties, and are altogether less restrained and less 
beautiful than the angels at Perugia. Above the lying 
statue is a seated Madonna and Child on a throne richly 
ornamented with mosaics and twisted columns. On either 
side, under niches, are the figures of S. Dominic, and the 
kneeling Cardinal, presented to the Virgin by a Dominican 
monk. The majestic figure of the Madonna recalls something 
of the imperial air of the Virgin by Niccolo Pisano on* the 
pulpit at Pisa. 

A sepulchral chapel in the church was built by Michele 
Sammicheli for one of the Petrucci family of Siena, who 
died in Orvieto in 151 7. 



376 ORVIETO 

Another centre of the ancient municipal life is to be 
found in the now desolate Piazza del Popolo, or Mercato, 

which lies on the other side of the Cor so. 
The massive and imposing Palazzo del Capitano, or del 

Popolo, one of the oldest municipal buildings of the Middle 
Ages, is said to have been erected by Adrian IV. in 1156 
and restored in 1255. The upper storey has six beautiful 
windows, and the entrance is reached by a fine flight of 
stairs leading from the piazza. 

Another large but unfinished municipal building is the 
Palazzo Comunale, in the Piazza Vittorio Emmanuele, 
erected in the beginning of the thirteenth century, now 
used as the Municipio. The Renaissance facade was added 
in 1524. Such are some of the evidences that still remain 
of the prosperity and vigorous life to be found in Orvieto 
in the thirteenth century. 

S. Andrea, in the Piazza Vittorio Emmanuele, is an 
ancient church built before the middle of the twelfth cen- 
tury, upon the site of a Roman temple dedicated to Juno. 
The church has no architectural features of interest, and is 
noteworthy chiefly from its associations with some of the 
most solemn events and deeds of the mediaeval Republic. 
On the Feast of the Assumption it was the custom for the 
conquered towns and castles annually to offer their tribute 
as a sign of submission to the Orvietans at the doorway of 
S. Andrea. Pietro Parenzo, the first Podesta, who was 
murdered in Orvieto, was canonised here. 

In 1 28 1 Martin IV. received the papal tiara in this 
church, in the presence of Charles of Anjou. On a pier of 
the crossing, to the R v is a small pulpit richly inlaid with 
cosmati work. 

S. Lorenzo. The nave of this small church is supported 
by five round pillars with simple block capitals There is 
a wooden roof, and small clerestory windows. In the semi- 
dome are the figures of Christ and Mary, with SS. John, 
Lawrence, and Francis. Over the altar, which is formed 
of Etruscan carved panels, is an ancient baldacchino, 



OTHER CHURCHES 377 

perhaps of the tenth or eleventh century. There are 
remains of frescoes on the walls. On the l. wall of the 
nave, scenes from the life of S. Lawrence. 

S. Francesco. This church, built upon the highest part 
of the city, dates from 1229. It was in this building that 
Boniface VIII. canonised S. Louis, King of France, in 
1297. The church was also the scene of the magnificent 
funeral of Prince Henry of England, murdered by Guy de 
Montfort in Viterbo in 1273. There were present on the 
occasion the English king, Edward I., and his queen, as 
well as Charles of Anjou and Pope Gregory X. 

Several members of the famous Monaldeschi family are 
buried in this church. 

S. Giovenale, in the Via Malabranca, is probably the 
oldest Orvietan church, having been constructed in 1004 
at the expense of the families of the Monaldeschi, Rinaldini, 
and the Counts of Marsciano. 

The building underwent radical modifications in the 
thirteenth century, and again in 1640, but. some traces still 
remain of the Romanesque period. The high altar, for 
example, is formed of a marble slab covered with inter- 
lacing patterns of crosses and circles. On the pilasters at 
the corners are the figures of a dove, a griffin, a bishop, and 
the Archangel Michael. The date n 70 may be seen on the 
side. The church also possesses an interesting ivory casket 
of Romanesque workmanship, with the symbolical figures 
of a Lamb between a Peacock and a Pelican, signifying the 
Redeemer, who, by His sacrifice, bestowed the gift of ever- 
lasting beatitude upon man. Christ is symbolised by the 
Lamb, His sacrifice by the Pelican, and Immortality by the 
Peacock. 

On the road which leads from the Duomo down to the 
Funicolare station, is the office of the Finanziari, originally 
the Palazzo Marsciano, designed by Antonio San Gallo. 

Continue on the way to the Funicolare and close to the 
station are the remains of the Fortress built by Cardinal 
Albornoz in 1364. The grounds are now converted into a 



378 ORVIETO 

public garden commanding extensive views of the Paglia 
Valley. 

The Well of S. Patrick (Pozzo di S. Patrizio), near to the 
fortress, is an ingenious and unusual construction built by 
the architect, San Gallo, in 1527. Clement VII. had fled to 
Orvieto for refuge after the sack of Rome by the Constable 
Bourbon ; and fearing that the water supply of the town 
would prove deficient in the case of a siege, he ordered the 
construction of the magnificent well. The shaft is about 
one hundred and eighty feet deep, and forty-six feet in 
diameter. There are two staircases, one for the ascent, 
and the other for the descent, wide enough for the passage 
of mules. The walls are pierced by seventy-two windows, 
and through these openings, one can see far down at the 
bottom a speck of water circled round by a green wall of 
delicate ferns. It is said that San Gallo took the idea of 
this stairway from Niccolo Pisano's designs for the Cam- 
panile at Pisa. Clement VII. died before the completion 
of the structure, and his successor Paul III. gave the work 
to Simon Mosca, who transformed the balls of the Medici 
arms, which Clement had placed above the door, into the 
lilies of the Farnese house. 

The inscription on the upper building runs, QUOD 
NATURA MUNIMENTO INVIDERAT INDUSTRIA 
ADJECIT. " Industry supplies what nature is unwilling 
to bestow." 

A pleasant walk may be made to the Capuchin Convent. 
Leave the town by the Porta Romana, or by the Porta 
Maggiore, and descend the hill by one of the many paths 
until the walls of an old viaduct are reached. Climb the 
rough path to the convent, from whence there is a fine 
view of the city. 

The Monastery of SS. Severo and Martirio, known as La 
Badia, is about one and a half miles beyond the Porta 
Romana. It can be reached by carriage from the road, or 
on foot by fjleasant paths through vine and olive gardens. 

Leave the town by the Porta Romana. Turn down a 



OTHER CHURCHES 379 

steep road to the l. into the valley. Continue the same 
country track which climbs the hill on the opposite side, 
the Abbadia being well in view during the greater part of 
the walk. The building was begun in the eighth century, 
and was enlarged and enriched at different times up to 
the fourteenth century. The ten-sided Campanile in the 
Romanesque style was added by the Countess Matilda, 
who died in 11 15. Some marble fragments, remains of the 
older construction, may be seen built into the walls of the 
Tower. The windows are round-arched and divided by a 
single column. 

The cloister has round-headed windows with Roman- 
esque ornament, but the capitals of the columns are Gothic 
in character. The monastery was inhabited by Benedic- 
tine monks until 1221. It was then given by Honorius III. 
to the regular canons of the Premonstratensians. In 
1423 Martin V. bestowed it upon the Olivetans, who in 
turn were dispossessed by Eugenius IV. in 1442, and the 
rich monastery passed into the hands of Cardinal Barbo, 
the nephew of the Pope. 

In the basement of the National Gallery there are a num- 
ber of copies of frescoes which were made for the Arundel 
Society, with some of the reproductions from them. Re- 
presentations of the following pictures may be seen : — 

From Perugia — The Transfiguration from the Sala del 
Cambio. 

From Assisi — Many of the Old Testament scenes and 
New Testament scenes from the nave of the Upper Church 
of S. Francesco. Many of the scenes from the life of S. 
Francis in the nave of the upper church. 

From the Lower Church of S. Francesco — Frescoes from 
the l. and R. transepts ; from the Chapel of the Mag- 
dalene, and from the Chapel of S. Martin. 

From the Capella della Madonna di S. Brizio, in the 
Duomo of Orvieto — The large fresco showing the Saints 
crowned in Paradise. 

From Panicale — The fresco of S. Sebastian. 



380 ORVTETO 

From Montefalco — Several scenes from the life of S. 
Francis, and a large altar-piece by Benozzo Gozzoli. 

From Spello — The Sposalizio in S. Girolamo. 

In the South Kensington Museum there is a model of 
the Sal a del Cambio at Perugia. 

The following list of books may be useful to travellers in 
Central Italy : — 

" Lives of the most Eminent Painters, Sculptors, and 
Architects/' by Giorgio Vasari. The best edition is that of 
Sansoni, with notes by Milanesi, in 9 vols. A selection of 
seventy of the most important lives has been translated, 
with notes by G. H. and G. W. Blashfield and A. A. 
Hopkins, 4 vols. 

" Sketches of the History of Christian Art," by Lord 
Lindsay, 2 vols. 

" A New History of Painting in Italy," by J. A. Crowe 
and G. B. Cavalcaselle, 3 vols. New editions have been 
and are in course of publication by Murray and by Dent. 

" Tuscan Sculptors," by Charles C. Perkins, 2 vols. 

" Italian Sculptors," by Charles C. Perkins, 1 vol. 

" Renaissance in Italy," by J. A. Symonds, 7 vols. 

(" The Fine Arts," in vol. iii. of the series.) 

" Florentine Painters of the Renaissance," by Bernhard 
Berenson, 1 vol. 

" The Central Italian Painters of the Renaissance," by 
Bernhard Berenson, 1 vol. 

" Perugino/' by G. C. Williamson, Litt.D. 

" Signorelli," by Maud Crutwell. 

" The Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria," by George 
Dennis, 2 vols. 

VArt Etrusque, Jules Martha. 

Vita di S. Francesco d'Assisi, scritta da S. Bonaventura ; 
edited by Mons. Amoni. 

" The Mirror of Perfection," edited by Paul Sabatier, 
translated by Sebastian Evans. 

" The Little Flowers of S. Francis," translated by T. W. 
Arnold. 



LIST OF ARTISTS 381 

Vie de S. Francois cT Assist, by Paul Sabatier. 

Franz von Assist, by Henry Thode. 

" The Inferno " of Dante, translated by Dr Carlisle ; 
edited by H. Oelsner, M.A., Ph.D. " The Purgatory " of 
Dante, ed ted, with translation and notes, by A. J. Butler. 
" The Paradise " of Dante, translated by the Rev. P. H. 
Wicksteed, M.A. 

De Monarchia of Dante, translated by the Rev. P. H. 
Wicksteed, M.A. 

" The Banquet " (II Convito) of Dante, translated by 
Katharine Hillard. 

The " Golden Legend ; or, Lives of the Saints," 7 vols., 
translated by W. Caxton ; edited by F. S. Ellis. 

" Sacred and Legendary Art," by Mrs Jameson, 2 vols. 

" Legends of the Monastic Orders," by Mrs Jameson, 
1 vol. 

" Legends of the Madonna," by Mrs Jameson, 1 vol. 

" History of Our Lord," by Mrs Jameson and Lady 
Eastlake, 2 vols. 



List of the Principal Artists connected with Umbria 

Aliense . . pupil of Tintoretto 

Alfani, Domenico di, . . . . . 1483-1536 

Paris 

Alfani, Orazio 1510-1583 

Andrea Pisano died after 1349 

Angelico,Fra ^ 1387-1455 

Arnolfo di Cambio . . . . . 12 32-1 31 5 ? 

Baccio d'Agnolo Stalls, S. Agostino, . 1462-1543 

Perugia 

Baroccio ....... 1528-1612 

Bernardino di Mari- working between . 1502- 152 1 

otto 

2 c 



382 THE 

Berto di Giovanni 
Boccati, Giovanni 
Bonfigli, Benedetto 
Botticelli . 
Campello, Fra 

Filippo di 
Caporali, Bartolom- 

meo 
Cavallini, Pietro 
Cimabue . 
Danti., Vincenzo 
Doni, Adone 
Duccio, Agostino 
Eusebio di San 

Giorgio 
Fiorenzo di Lorenzo 
Gentile da Fabriano 
Giotto 
Giottino . 
Giovanni da Bologna 
Giovanni Pisano 
Giunta da Pisa . 
Gozzoli, Benozzo 
Guida da Siena 
Ibi, Sinibaldo . 
Jacopo, Tedesco 



UMBRIAN TOWNS 

living between . . 149 7-1 523 
working . . 1435 ?-i46o ? 

1425-1496 

. 1444-1510 
Architect Sta. Chiara, 1232 ?- ? 

Assisi 



working between. 



working 



last record of 



13th century 



1442-1499 



1240 P-I302 ? 

• 1530-1576 
. 1540-1583 ? 

1418-1481 

. 1492-1527 

i44o/4S- I S 21 / 22 

1360/70-1427/28 

1266-1337 

. 1369 

1524-1608 

died 1320 



13th century 

working in . 

Architect of S. Fran- 
cesco; Assisi 
Lippi, Fra Filippo . 

Lorenzetti, Ambrogio ..... 
Lorenzetti, Pietro . . ' 
Lorenzo di S. Sever- the elder, working 

ino 
Lorenzo di S. Sever- the younger, working 

ino up to 

Luca della Robbia . . 
Maitani Lorenzo ..... 

Manni, Giannicola . 
Margaritone ...... 



1420-1498 
. 1528 



1406-1469 
died 1348 ? 
died 1348 ? 
1400-1416 ? 

• 1 5°3 

1400-1482 

1275 ^S 

died 1544 

1236-1313 ? 



working 

latter part of 15th 



work dated 
working 



sculptor, Orvieto 
sculptor 



LIST OF ARTISTS 

Martini, Simone 

Masolino . 

Matteo da Gualdo 

Melanzio . 

Melozzo da Forli 

Melioranzius, Gre- Duomo, Spoleto 
gorius 

Memmi Lippo . 

Mezzastris (Pier An- 
tonio da Foligno) 

Mino da Fiesole 

Mosca, Francesco 

Mosca, Simone . 

Nelli, Ottaviano 

Niccolo da Foligno 

Niccolo Pisano . 

Nuzzi, Allegretto 

Oderisio da Gubbio 

Orcagna, Andrea 

Palmerucci, Guido 

Perugino . 

Piero della Francesca 

Pietro di Puccio 

Pinturicchio 

Pisano, Andrea . 

Pisano, Giovanni 

Pisano, Niccolo 

Pollaiuolo, Antonio 

Raphael . 

Reni, Guido 

Salsernus . 

Sano di Matteo 

Santi, Giovanni 

Sassoferrato 

Scalza, Ippolito 

Sebastiano del Piombo 

Signorelli, Luca 

Spagna, Lo . working until 



working 



Mosaic, Duomo, Spoleto 
working 



working 



383 

. 1285 P-I344 

T-3%3 ?-i44o ? 

. 1468-1503 

century ? 

1438-1494 
? 



•• 1317 
. 1468 

1431-1484 



1492- 
died 



1553 
1444 

i43°- I S° 2 ? 
1206 ?-i28o ? 
died 1374 
died 1299 

1308 P-I368 
1280-1345 
1446-1524 

1415 P-I492 

1370-1391 
1454-1513 
died after 1349 
died 1320 
1206 ?-i28o ? 
1429-1498 

1483-1520 
1 574-1642 

1207 
. 1407 
1430/40-1494 
1 605-1 685 

• 1579 

1485-1547 
1441-1523 

• 1532 



384 THE UM BRIAN TOWNS 

Stefano di Ber- Stalls, S. Pietro, Perugia 



gamo 




Taddeo di Bartolo 


. 


Tiberio d'Assisi 


working 


Uccello, Paolo . 


. 


Ugolino di Prete 


working 


Ilario 




Ugolino di Maestro 


working 


Vieri 




Vasari, Giorgio . 


• • 


Verrocchio, Andrea 


• • 


Viti., Timoteo 


• 



153s 

1363-1422 
1512-1518 

1397-1475 
1364-1378 

• !337 

iS I2 ~ I 574 
1435-1488 
1467-1523 



INDEX 



INDEX 



Abbeys, La Badia, 378 ; Sasso 

Vivo, 262 
Agostino di Duccio, 104, 115, 

125,127 
Albornoz, Cardinal, 132, 163, 

377 
Alfani, Domenico, 66, 67, 68 
Angelico, Fra, 51, 352 
Anthony of Padua, S., 166 
Aquinas, S. Thomas, 375 
Arco di Agosto, 10 
Arnolfo del Cambio, 83, 375 
Art in Umbria, 38-43 
Arts, The Liberal, 78, 95, 96, 

97 
Assisi, 141-245 ; Cappella di 
S. Francesco, 230 ; Cap- 
pella dei Pellegrini, 227 ; 
Carceri, 231 ; S. Chiara, 223; 
Chiesa Nuova, 230 ; Confra- 
ternity of S. Francesco, 229 ; 
S. Damiano, 233 ; Duomo, 
143; Francesco, S., Church 
of, 151-223 (Atrium, 162 ; 
Building of Church, 151 ; 
Chapels in Lower Church, 
163- 171, 191; Right transept, 
174 ; Vault, 179 ; Left tran- 
sept, 186; Nave, 195; High 
Altar, 186; Upper Church, 
frescoes in, 197 ; Left tran- 
sept, 198 ; Choir, 201 ; Right 
transept, 203 ; Nave, 205 ; 
S. Francis, ideal of, 157; 
Conformity of life of Francis 
with that of Christ, 159; 
Scheme of the frescoes, 154) ; 
S. Giovanni d'Arce, 230 ; 

387 



Assisi — continued 

History of Assisi, 141 ; S. 
Maria degli Angeli, 238 
S. Maria Maggiore, 230 
Porziuncola, Chapel of, 238 
Rivo Torto, 230 ; Temple of 
Minerva, 143 

Augustine, S., 268 

Baglioni, The, 8, 9 

Banner pictures, 43, 53, 55, 

i*3> 274 
Barbarossa, 4, 141, 279 
Bartolommeo Caporali, 53, ^^ 
Beccherini, The, 5 
Benozzo Gozzoli, 51, 247, 251, 

254 
Benedict XL, tomb of, 116 
Berlinghieri Bonaventura, 44 
Bernardino di Mariotto, ^^, 56 
Bevagna, 254 ; sculpture, 255 
Bevignate, Fra, 82, 322 
Boccati, Giovanni da Camerino, 

50, 51 

Bolsena, Miracle of, 323 
Bonfigli, Benedetto, 45, 46, 47, 

52, 53, 54, 55, 105, 113, 

114, 120 
Borgia, Lucrezia, 279 
Braccio Fortebraccio, 29, 129 

Cambio, Hall of the, 69-82 ; 

Chapel of, 80-82 
Cavallini, Pietro, 197, 206 
Cellini, Benvenuto, 314, 315 
Celtic invasion, The, xv. 
Chiara, Sta., 148, 223, 224, 

225, 234, 241 



3 88 



INDEX 



Church, The, and the Empire, 
2, 4 

Cimabue, 178, 197, 198, 201, 
203 

Citta della Pieve, 138, 139 

Citta di Castello, 272 ; Altar 
front of Celestine II., 273; 
Duomo, 272 ; Palaces, 274 ; 
Palazzo Comunale, 273 ; Pic- 
ture gallery, 273 

Clitunno, Temple of, 276 

Cola di Mateuccio, 136 

Costanzo, S., 121 

Cyprus, Queen of, tomb, 162 

Dominic, S., 242 
Domenico Bartolo, 49 
Donation to the Pope, The, xvii. 
Dono Doni, 164 

Egidio, Frate, 30, no, 128 

Elias, Frate, 151 

Etruscans, Gates and walls, 
Perugia, n ; Civilisation, 14- 
20 ; Conquered by Romans, 
16; Religion, 17-18: Art, 

18 ; Architecture, 19 ; Tombs, 

19 ; Museum in Perugia, 20- 
31; Tombs, 34; Tombs in 
Orvieto, 298-301 ; Museo 
Civico, Orvieto, 307 ; Faina 
Museum, Orvieto, 315 ; 
Frescoes, Poggio Roccolo, 

303-307 

Eugubine Tables, 266 
Eusebio di S. Giorgio, 65, 66, 

6y 9 121, 271 
Exempla, Use of, 90, 91 

Federighi, Antonio, 323 

Filippeschi, The, 296 

Filippo Lippi, Fra, 282, 283 ; 
Grave of, 284 

Fiorenzo di Lorenzo, 56, 57, 
5 8 > 59, 103, 229 

Flaminian Way, The, xvi. 

Foligno, 257-263 ; Annunziata, 
260 ; Duomo, 261 ; S. Gio- 
vanni Profiamma, 263 ; S. 
Maria Infra Portas, 261 ; S. 
Niccolo, 260 ; Palazzo Com- 



Foligno — continued 

unale, 258 ; Palazzo del 
Governo, 258 ; Sasso Vivo, 
Abbey of, 262 

Fortebraccio, 7 

Fortress of Paul III., Perugia, 

9 

Fountain, The, of Perugia, 82, 
102 

Fra Filippo da Campello, 150, 
152, 224 

Francis, 142, 148 ; Story 1 of, 
149; Ideal of, 157; Con- 
formity with life of Christ, 
159 ; Burial of, 197 ; Glory 
of, 184 ; the Stigmata, 189 ; 
Canticle of the Sun, 234 ; at 
S. M. degli Angeli, 239 ; 
Marriage with Poverty, 179 

Francesco di Castello, 272, 

274. 
Frankish Conquest, xvii. 
Frederick II., 141, 148 

Gaddo Gaddi, 197 
Gentile da Fabriano, 50 
Giacomo di Cosma, 322 
Giannicola Manni, 63, 68, 80, 

103, 120 
Giotto, 169, 209, 212 
Giovanni della Penna, Fra, 150 
Giunta da Pisa, 45, 191, 243, 

245 
Gothic conquest of Perugia, 1 
Gufobio, 263-271 ; S. Agostino, 

266 ; Duomo, 271 ; S. M. 

Nuova, 269 ; Palazzo dei 

Consoli, 264 ; Palazzo Ducale, 

270 ; Pottery of, 264 
Guelph and Ghibelline, 2 
Guglielmo, Fra, 322 
Guido Reni, 120 

Historical Note, xv.-xviii. 
Hermits on Monte Luco, 278 

Ibi, Sinibaldo, 67, 265, 271 
Innocent III., 142 

James, S., of Compostella, 228, 
293 



INDEX 



389 



Jacopo Tedesco, 150 
Jacopone da Todi, 133, 136 
Julius III., Statue of, 102 

Karling Empire, xvii. 

Labours of the Months, 91, 

92, 93, 94, 95 
Lombard Conquest, The, xvi. 
Lorenzetti, Pietro, 186, 190, 

191, 265 
Luca della Robbia, 244 

Maitani, Lorenzo, 324 
Margaritone, 44, 251, 312 
Master of S. Cecilia, 212 
Martin, S., Story of, 191 
Mary Magdalene, S., Story of, 
• 168 
Matilda, Countess, 3, 379 
Matteo da Gualdo, 49, 227 
Melanzio, 252, 253 
Metastasio, 142, 227 
Mezzastris, 227, 260, 261, 290 
Michelotti, Biordo, 7 
Mino da Fiesole, 120 
Mirror, Etruscan, 28 
Monaldeschi, The, 296 
Mommaggiore, Abbot of, 7 
Montefalco, 247 - 254 ; S. 
' *Chiara, 253 ; S. Francesco, 

247 ; S. Fortunato, 254 ; 

S. Illuminata, 253 ; S. Maria 

della Piazza, 252 
Montefeltro, Family of, 270 
Mosca, Francesco, 314, 351 
Mosca, Simone, 351 
Moschino, 323 

Nicholas, S., Story of, 171 
Niccolo, Alunno. 55, 252, 257, 

260 
Nelli, Ottaviano, 258, 266, 269 

Oddi, The, 8, 9 
Oderisi, miniaturist, 40 
Orcagna, Andrea, 322 
Orvieto, 295-379; Andrea, S., 
"3 Church of, 376 ; Badia, La, 
378 ; Domenico, S., Church 
*!of, 374; Duomo, 321-374 



Orvieto — continued 

(Chapel of S. Brizio, 351 ; 
Chapel of the Corporale, 
367 ; Choir frescoes, "346 ; 
Facade, 324; Font, 374; 
Sculpture on the piers, 325) ; 
Etruscan tombs, 298, 301 ; 
Faina Collection, 315; S. 
Francesco, 377 ; S. Gioven- 
ale, 377 ; History, 295 ; S. 
Lorenzo, 376 ; Mediaeval 
Museum, 311 ; Monument of 
Cardinal de Bray, 375 ; Museo 
Civico, 307 ; Palaces, 320, 
321, 376, 377; Piazza del 
Duomo, 320 

Overbeck, 245 

Palmeruccio, 264 

Panicale, 137, 138 

Perugia, 91-139 ; Annals of, 1 ; 
S. Agnese, no ; S. Agostino, 
108 ; S. Angelo, 109 ; S. 
Angelo della Porta, no; 
Aqueduct, 1 10 ; S. Bevig- 
nate, 114; Cambio, Hall of 
the, 69 ; Canonica, 106 ; 
Carmine, 113; Costanzo, S., 
121 ; S. Domenico, 114 ; 
Duomo, 102 ; Excursions, 
131; S. Fiorenzo, 113; The 
Fountain, 82 ; S. Francesco 
al Monte, no; S. Francesco 
al Prato, 128 ; Gates and 
Walls, 10 ; Library, Hall of 
the, 68 ; S. Madonna della 
Luce, 124; Majesta della 
Volte, 107 ; S. Martino, 107 ; 
Museum, The, 20 ; S. Maria 
Nuova, 112; Oratory of S. 
Bernardino, 125 ; Palazzo 
Pubblico, 35 ; Parties in 
Perugia, 5 ; Picture Gallery, 
38 ; S. Pietro dei Cassinesi, 
117; S. Severo, in ; Uni- 
versity, 5 

Perugino, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 
64, 65, 67 ; Scholars of, 65, 
71, 79, no, 112, 118, 138, 
1395 252, 260, 275; House 
of, 12 



390 INDEX 

Piccinino, 7 

Piero della Francesco, 51 

Pinturicchio, 63, 64, 120, 256, 

257> 2 8 5, 346 

Pisani, The, Andrea, 322; 
Giovanni, 83 ; Niccolo, 83 ; 
Nino, 314 

Plans, Perugia, 71 ; Assisi, 161, 
163, 165, 167, 170, 172, 
176, 188, 193, 196, 200, 
202, 204, 208 ; Montefalco, 
250 ; Foligno, 259 ; Gubbio, 
267 ; Orvieto, 331, 338, 342, 
345, 35o, 354, 360, 372 

Popes elected in Perugia, 106 

Pottery, Etruscan, 26, 29, 309, 
310, 319; of Gubbio, 264 

Raffaello da Montelupo, 

323, 35i 

Ramo di Paganello, 322 
Raphael, 65, 111 
Raspanti, The, 5, 7 
Ring, The story of, 105 
Robbia, della, Andrea, 274 ; 

Luca, 244 
Roman Conquest of Umbria, 

xv. 
Roman Umbria, xvi. 
Romanesque sculpture, 122, 

144, 281, 286 
Rosso, II, 272 
Rusutti, Filippo, 197, 209, 

210, 212 

Saints, Agnese, 148, 225 ; An- 
sano, 291; Bernardino, 53, 
125, 236; Chiara, 148, 223, 
224, 225,234,241; Costanzo, 
121 ; Exuperantius, 145 ; 
Francis, 142, 148, 149, 157, 
159, 179, 184, 189, 234, 
239; Fortunato, 132; Rufino, 

143, 145 
Sammichele, 351, 375 
San Gallo, Antonio, 377 
Sassoferrato, 68 
Sasso Vivo, Abbey of, 262 
Savoy, House of, xviii. 
Scalza, Ippolito, 323, 351 
Sculpture, Doorway, Palazzo 



Sculpture — continued 

Pubblico, Perugia, 36-38; 
Tomb of Benedict XL, 116 ; 
S. Costanzo, 122 ; Assisi, 144- 
147 ; Spoleto, 281, 282, 286, 
290 ; Orvieto, 325 - 346 ; 
Bevagna, 254; Todi, 133 

Sforza, Francesco, 132 

Sienese and Florentine paint- 
ing, 179 

Signorelli Luca, 51, 103, 274, 

313, 352 
Simone Martini, 179, 191, 

312 
Spagno, Lo, 66, 67, 135, 191, 

244, 252, 273, 276, 284, 

291 
Spello, 255-257 ; S. Andrea, 

257 ; Duomo, 256 ; S. Giro- 

lamo, 257 ; Roman remains, 

?55 

Spinello, Aretino, 312 

Spoleto, 276-292 ; S. Agostino, 
292 ; S. Ansano, 291 ; Bap- 
tistery, 285 ; Duomo, 280 ; 
Frescoes, 283 ; S. Giacomo, 
292, 294 ; S. Giuliano, 292 ; 
History of -Spoleto, 277 ; 
Monte Luco, 278 ; Palazzo 
Pubblico, 290 ; Picture Gal- 
lery, 290 ; S. Pietro, 286 ; 
Roman remains, 277 

Summary of the Monuments, 
xix., xx. 

Taddeo Bartolo, 48, 49 
Temple of Minerva (Assisi), 

I 43 . 

Teutonic Empire, xvii., 3 

Tiberio d' Assisi, 124, 236, 243, 

251, 254, 276, 291 
Timoteo Viti, 271 
Todi, S. Maria della Consola- 

zione, 136 ; Duomo, 133 ; 

S. Fortunato, 135 ; History 

of Todi, 131; S. Ilario, 137; 

Palaces, 134, 135 ; Roman 

remains, 137 
Tombs, of Benedict XL, 116; 

Etruscan, at Perugia, 19, 31, 

34; at Orvieto, 298, 301 ; of 



INDEX 



39 T 



Tombs — continued 

Frate Egidio, 30 ; of Cardinal 

de Bray, 375 
Torritti, Jacopo, 197, 206 
Trevi, 275-276; Duomo, 275; 

S. Maria della Lagrime, 275 ; 

S. Martino, 276 ; Pinacoteca, 

Trinci family, 258 

Ugolino di Prete Ilario, 
346, 369 



Ugolino di Maestro Vieri, 314 
Urbano da Cortona, 102 



Vasari, 120 

Virtues, Symbols of the, 73, 74, 

75 ; Franciscan Virtues, 179- 

184 
Volumnii, Tombs of the, 31-34 



Zodiac, 92, 262 



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